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diff --git a/saved_articles/Can_We_Make_Bicycles_Sustainable_Again.txt b/saved_articles/Can_We_Make_Bicycles_Sustainable_Again.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 247391b..0000000 --- a/saved_articles/Can_We_Make_Bicycles_Sustainable_Again.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,627 +0,0 @@ -Feed: Low-Tech Magazine -Title: Can We Make Bicycles Sustainable Again? -Author: kris de decker -Date: Mon, 24 Apr 2023 03:19:58 -0500 -Link: https://www.lowtechmagazine.com/2023/02/can-we-make-bicycles-sustainable-again.html - -Cycling is the most sustainable form of transportation, but the bicycle is -becoming increasingly damaging to the environment. The energy and material used -for its production go up while its life expectancy decreases. - -[image 1: Imagenweb (link #2)][1] - -Illustration: Diego Marmolejo[3]. - -Cycling is sustainable, but how sustainable is the bicycle? - -Cycling is one of the most sustainable modes of transportation. Increased -ridership reduces fossil fuel consumption and pollution, saves space, and -improves public health and safety. However, the bicycle itself has managed to -elude environmental critique. [1] [2] Studies that calculate the environmental -impact of cycling almost always compare it to driving, with predictable results: -the bicycle is more sustainable than the car. Such research may encourage people -to cycle more often but doesn't encourage manufacturers to make their bicycles -as sustainable as possible. - -For this article, I have consulted academic studies that compare different types -of bicycles against each other or focus on the manufacturing stage of a -particular two-wheeler. That kind of research was virtually non-existent until -three or four years ago. Using the available material, I compare different -generations of bicycles. Set in a historical context, it becomes clear that the -resource use of a bike's production increases while its lifetime is becoming -shorter. The result is a growing environmental footprint. That trend has a clear -beginning. The bicycle evolved very slowly until the early 1980s and then -suddenly underwent a fast succession of changes that continues up to this day. - - The bicycle evolved very slowly until the early 1980s and then suddenly - underwent a fast succession of changes that continues up to this day. - -There are no studies about bicycles built before the 1980s. Life cycle analyses, -which investigate the resource use of a product from “cradle” to “grave,” only -appeared in the 1990s. However, the benchmark for a sustainable bicycle stands -in the room where I write this. It’s my 1980 Gazelle Champion road bike – now 43 -years old. I bought it ten years ago in Barcelona from a tall German guy who was -leaving the city. He had tears in his eyes when I walked away with it. I have a -second road bike, a Mercier from 1978. That is my spare vehicle in case the -other one breaks down and I don't have the time for immediate repairs. I have -two more road bikes parked in Belgium, where I grew up and where I still travel -a few times a year (by train[4], not by bike). These are a Plume Vanqueur from -the late 1960s and a Ventura from the 1970s. - -The main reason why I have opted for old bicycles is that they are much better -than new bicycles. Most people don’t realize that, so they are also much -cheaper. My four bikes cost me just 500 euros in total. That would buy me only -one low-cost new road bike, and such a vehicle surely won’t last 40 to 50 years -– as we shall see. Of course, it’s not just old road bikes which are better. The -same goes for other types of bicycles built before the 1980s. I ride road -bicycles because I cover relatively long distances, usually between 35 and 50 km -round trip. - -[image 2: P2200841 (link #6)][5] - -Image: The bicycle I use most often, a Gazelle Champion from 1980. It has -covered at least 30,000 km since I bought it in 2013. - -What bicycles are made of - -The first significant change in the bicycle manufacturing industry was the -switch from steel to aluminium bicycles. Before the 1980s, virtually all bikes -were made from steel. They had a steel frame, wheels, components and parts. -Nowadays, most bicycle frames and wheels are built from aluminium. The same goes -for many other bike parts. More recently, an increasing number of cycles have -frames and wheels made from carbon fibre composites. Some bike frames are built -from titanium or stainless steel. All of these materials are more energy -intensive to produce than steel. Furthermore, while steel and aluminium can be -recycled and repaired, composite fibres can only be downcycled and have poor -repairability. [3] - -Several studies have compared the energy and carbon costs of bicycle frames and -other components made from these different materials – which all have different -strength-to-weight ratios. That research has some limitations. Scientists use -crude methods because they lack detailed energy data from bike manufacturing -processes, and some studies come from manufacturers who pay researchers to -review the sustainability of their products. Nevertheless, all put together, the -results are pretty consistent. For the sake of brevity, I focus on emissions -(CO2 = CO2-equivalents) and ignore other environmental impacts. - - Before the 1980s, virtually all bicycles were made from steel. - -Reynolds, a British manufacturer known for its bicycle tubing, found that making -a steel frame costs 17.5 kg CO2, while a titanium or stainless steel frame costs -around 55 kg CO2 per frame – three times as much. [4] Starling Cycles, a rare -producer of steel mountain bikes, concluded that a typical carbon frame uses 16 -times more energy than a steel frame. [5] (That would be 280 kg CO2). An -independent 2014 study – the first of its kind – calculated the footprint of an -aluminum road bike frame with carbon fork from the “Specialized” brand and found -the cost to be 2,380 kilowatt-hours of primary energy and over 250 kg of carbon -– roughly 14 times that of a steel frame (without fork) as calculated by -Reynolds. [2] - -A bicycle is more than a frame alone. Life cycle analyses of entire bikes show -that the carbon footprint of all the other components is at least as large as -that of a steel frame. [6] Scientists have calculated the lifetime carbon -emissions of a steel bike at 35 kg CO2, compared to 212 kg CO2 for an aluminum -bicycle. [7] [8] The most detailed life cycle analysis sets the carbon footprint -for an 18.4 kg aluminum bicycle at 200 kg CO2, including its spare parts, for a -lifetime of 15,000 km. The main impact phase is the preparation of materials -(74%; aluminum, stainless steel, rubber), followed by the maintenance phase -(15.5% for 3.5 new sets of tires, six brake pads, one chain, and one cassette) -and the assembly phase (4.96%). [9] - -Where & how bicycles are made - -My steel bicycles date from a time when most industrialized countries had -long-established domestic bicycle industries serving their national market. [3] -These industries collapsed in Europe and North America following neoliberal -globalization in the late 1970s. China opened to foreign investment and quickly -became the largest bicycle manufacturer in the world. During the last two -decades, China has made two-thirds of the world’s bicycles (60-70 million of 110 -million annually). Most of the rest come from other Asian countries. Europe is -back to producing ten million bikes annually, but the US only manufactures -60,000 bicycles per year. [3] - -Throughout the twentieth century, manufacturing bicycles required substantial -inputs of human labor. [3] According to the Routledge Companion to Cycling, -“wheels were spoked and trued manually; frames were built by hand; saddle making -was laborious; headsets, gear clusters (blocks), brake cables and gears were -physically bolted on.” Since the 2000s, automation has considerably reduced the -need for human labor. The largest Chinese bike manufacturer, which builds -one-fifth of the world’s bicycles, has 42 bicycle assembly lines making 55,000 -bicycles a day – almost as much as the US in a year. [3] - - Domestic bicycles industries in Europe and North America collapsed following - neoliberal globalization in the late 1970s. - -The globalization and automation of the bicycle industry make bikes less -sustainable. First, they introduce extra emissions for transportation (from raw -materials, components, and bicycles) and for producing and operating robots and -other machinery. Second, producing steel, aluminum, carbon fiber composites, and -electricity is more energy and carbon-intensive in China and other -bike-producing countries than in Europe and North America. [10] Most -importantly, however, is that large-scale automated production represents sunk -capital that needs to be working most of the time to spread overhead costs, -driving overproduction. [3] - -How long bicycles last - -How much energy and other resources it takes to build a bicycle and to deliver -it to a cyclist is just half the story. At least as importantly is how long the -bike lasts. The shorter its lifetime, the more vehicles need to be produced over -the lifetime of a cyclist, and the higher the resource use becomes. - -For a long life expectancy, some parts of a bicycle need replacement. These are -typically smaller parts such as shifters, chains, and brakes. [11] Until a few -decades ago, component compatibility was a hallmark of bicycle manufacturing. -[12] My bicycles are a perfect example of this. Most components – such as -wheels, gear set, and brakes – are interchangeable between the different frames, -even though every vehicle is from another brand and year of construction. -Component compatibility allows for easy maintenance and repairability, thereby -increasing the lifetime of a bicycle. Bike shops in even the smallest villages -can repair all types of bicycles using a limited set of tools and spare parts. -[12] Cyclists can do minor repairs at home. - -Unfortunately, compatibility is hardly a feature of bicycle manufacturing -anymore. Manufacturers have introduced an increasing number of proprietary parts -and keep changing standards, resulting in compatibility issues even for older -bicycles of the same brand. [1] [3] For example, if the shifter of a modern bike -breaks after some years of use, a replacement part will probably no longer be -available. You need to order a new set from a new generation, which will be -incompatible with your front and rear derailleur – which you also need to -replace. [12] For road bikes, the change from cassette bodies with ten sprockets -(around 2010) to cassette bodies with eleven, twelve, and most recently thirteen -sprockets have made many wheelsets obsolete, and the same goes for the rest of -the drivetrain including shifters and chains. [12] [1] - - Before the 1980s, most bicycle components were interchangeable between frames - of different brands and generations. - -Disc brakes, which are now on almost every new bicycle, all have different axle -designs, meaning that every vehicle now requires proprietary spare parts. [1] -Disc brakes also required new shifters, forks, framesets, cables, and wheels, -making such bicycles incompatible with earlier designs. [12] The rise of -proprietary parts makes it increasingly hard to keep a bike on the road through -maintenance, reuse, and refurbishment. As the number of incompatible components -grows, it becomes impossible for bike shops to have a complete stock of spare -parts. [12] If a manufacturer goes bankrupt, proprietary spare parts will no -longer be available. - -Component incompatibility is accompanied by decreasing component quality. An -example is the saddle, which hardly ever outlasts a frameset because it cracks -at the bottom of the shell. [12] A little extra material would make it last -forever – as proven by all saddles of my 40 to 50-year-old road bikes. Low -quality affects some parts of expensive bicycles but is especially problematic -for cheap bicycles made entirely of low-quality components. Cheap bicycles – -bike mechanics refer to them as “built-to-fail bikes” or “bike-shaped objects” – -often have plastic parts that break easily and cannot be replaced or upgraded. -These vehicles typically last only a few months. [13, 14] - -[image 3: Bike-manufacturing-factory-diego-marmolejo (link #8)][7] - -Illustration: Diego Marmolejo[3]. - -How bicycles are powered - -So far, we have only dealt with entirely human-powered bicycles, but bikes with -electric motors are becoming increasingly popular. The number of e-bikes sold -worldwide grew from 3.7 million in 2019 to 9.7 million in 2021 (10% of total -bike sales and up to 40% in some countries like Germany). Electric bikes -reinforce both trends that make bicycles less sustainable. On the one hand, -electric motors and batteries require additional resources such as lithium, -copper, and magnets, increasing the energy use and emissions of bike -manufacturing. Researchers have calculated the greenhouse gas emissions caused -by manufacturing an aluminum e-bike at 320 kg. [8] This compares to 212 kg for -the production of an unassisted aluminum bicycle and 35 kg for an unassisted -steel bicycle. - -On the other hand, the life expectancy of an electric bicycle is shorter than -that of an unassisted two-wheeler because it has more points of failure. The -breakdown of the extra components – motor, battery, electronics – leads to a -shorter lifecycle due to component incompatibility. An academic study on -circularity in the bike manufacturing industry observes a significant increase -in defective components compared to unassisted bicycles and concludes that “the -great dynamics of the market due to regular innovations, product renewals, and -the lack of spare parts for older models make the long-term use by customers -much more difficult than for conventional bicycles.” [15] - - Electric bikes reinforce both trends that make bicycles less sustainable. - -On top of this, electric bicycles require electricity for their operation, -further increasing resource use and emissions. This impact is small when -compared to the manufacturing phase. After all, humans provide part of the -power, and the electricity use of an electric bike (25 km/h) is only around 1 -kilowatt-hour per 100 km. The average greenhouse gas emission intensity of -electricity generation in Europe in 2019 was 275 gCO2/kWh. [16] If an e-bike -lasts 15,000 km, charging the battery only adds 41 kg of CO2, compared to 320 kg -for producing the (aluminum) bicycle. Even in the US and China, where the carbon -intensity of the power grid is 50-100% higher than the European value, electric -bicycle production dominates total emissions and energy use. - -Cargo cycles - -Combining energy-intensive materials, short lifetimes, and electric motor -assistance can increase lifecycle emissions to surprising levels, especially for -cargo cycles. These vehicles are larger and heavier than passenger bicycles and -need more powerful motors and batteries. There are very few life cycle analyses -of cargo cycles. However, a recent study calculated the lifecycle emissions of a -carbon fiber electric cargo cycle to be 80 gCO2 per kilometer – only half those -of an electric van (158 gCO2/km). [17] The researchers explain this by the -difference in lifetime mileage – 34,000 km compared to 240,000 km for the van – -and the carbon fiber composites in many components, including the chassis of the -vehicle. The lifecycle emissions of the cargo cycle, including the electricity -used to charge its battery, amount to 2,689 kg. That is almost 40 times the -lifecycle emissions of two steel bicycles (each with a 15,000 km lifecycle -mileage). - -Extending the useful life of electric bicycles has less impact on lifecycle -emissions when compared to unassisted bikes. That’s because the battery needs to -be replaced every 3 to 4 years and the motor every ten years, which adds to the -resource use of spare parts. [11] This is demonstrated by a life cycle analysis -of an electric steel cargo cycle with an assumed life expectancy of 20 years. -[18] During its lifetime, the vehicle uses five batteries (each weighing 8,5 -kg), two motors, and 3.5 sets of tires. Most lifecycle emissions are caused by -these spare parts, with the batteries alone accounting for 40% of the total -emissions. In comparison, the emissions for the steel frame are almost -insignificant. [18] This particular cargo cycle was built for African roads and -is not entirely representative of the average cargo cycle, mainly because of its -heavy tires. - -Cargo cycles have another disadvantage. Passenger bicycles and cars usually -carry only one person, meaning that one passenger kilometer on a bike roughly -equals one passenger kilometer in an automobile. However, for cargo, the -comparison of ton-kilometers is more complicated. If the load is relatively -light – usually up to 150 kg – the electric cargo cycle will be less -carbon-intensive than a van. However, heavier loads require several cargo cycles -to replace one van, which multiplies the embodied emissions. [18] Switching to -electric cargo cycles without significantly reducing the cargo volume is -unlikely to save emissions. Obviously, cargo cycles with steel frames and -without electric motors and batteries -- for now still the majority -- will have -much lower carbon emissions over their lifetimes. - -How bicycles are used - -In recent years, many cities have introduced shared bicycle services. In theory, -shared bicycles could lower the number of bikes produced and thus decrease the -environmental impact of bicycle production. However, building and operating -bike-sharing services adds significant energy use and emissions. Furthermore, -shared bicycles don’t last as long as privately owned bicycles. Consequently, -shared bike services further reinforce the trends that make bicycles less -sustainable. - -A 2021 study compares the environmental impact of shared and private bicycles -while including the infrastructure that each option requires. It concludes that -personal bikes are more sustainable than shared bicycles. [8] The research is -based on the Vélib system in Paris, France, which has 19,000 vehicles, roughly -half with an electric motor. Vehicle manufacturing and bike-sharing -infrastructure cause more than 90% of emissions and energy use. The remaining -emissions are due to the construction of cycle lanes (3.5%), the rebalancing of -the bicycles to keep all stations optimally supplied (2%), and the electricity -used for charging the batteries of the electric bikes (0.3%). Altogether, a -shared bicycle from the Vélib system has an emissions rate of 32g CO2/km, which -is three to ten times higher than the rate of a personal bike (between 3.5 -gCO2/km for a steel bicycle and 10.5 g CO2/km for an aluminum bicycle. [8] - - Building and operating bike-sharing services adds significant energy use and - emissions - -The scientists found that the bike-sharing service led to a 15% drop in bike -ownership. However, they also calculated that the average lifespan of a shared -bicycle is only 14.7 months, with an average lifetime mileage of 12,250 km. In -comparison, the average lifetime of a personal bike in France, based on a 2020 -survey, is around 20,000 km – almost 50% higher than for shared bicycles. The -Vélib system includes 14,000 bike-sharing stations with a total surface of -92,000 m2 and an estimated lifetime of ten years. Each of the 46,500 docks -consists of 23 kg steel and 0.5 kg plastic. The power consumption of each -bike-sharing station is around 6,000 kWh per year. Due to the high impact of the -infrastructure, the lifecycle emissions of shared electric bikes are only 24% -higher than those of shared non-electric vehicles. [8] - -The environmental footprint of bike-sharing systems can vary significantly -between cities. A life cycle analysis of bike-sharing services in the US found -carbon emissions of 65g CO2/km – twice as high as in Paris. [19] This is largely -because the US systems rebalance the bicycles using diesel vans, while the -French service employs electric tractors. The US study also looks at the newer -generation of “dockless” bike-sharing services, which score even worse. Dockless -shared bikes can be parked anywhere and located through a smartphone -application. Although this removes the need for stations, each bicycle requires -energy-intensive electronic components, and the system also generates emissions -through communication networks. [19] [10] Furthermore, dockless systems require -more bicycles and involve more rebalancing. - -A life cycle analysis of Chinese bike-sharing services, many dockless systems, -shows high damage rates and low maintenance rates for bicycles. The annual -damage rate is 10-20% for reinforced bicycles and 20-40% for lighter vehicles -which have become more common. In practice, a shared bicycle becomes scrap when -the bike part with the worst durability breaks down. Repair is virtually not -happening. [10] Finally, when the companies go bankrupt, bike sharing creates -mountains of waste – including bicycles in good condition. [10] [1] - -[image 4: Lifecycle-carbon-emissions-per-kilometre-of-riding-bicycle (link -#10)][9] - -Image: Lifecycle carbon emissions per kilometre of riding a bicycle. Data -sources: [8] [17] [19] [26] Graph: Marie Verdeil. - -Not every bicycle replaces a car - -None of this should discourage cycling. Even the most unsustainable bicycles are -significantly less unsustainable than cars. The carbon footprint for -manufacturing a gasoline or diesel-powered car is between 6 tonnes (Citroen C1) -and 35 tonnes (Land Rover Discovery). [20] Consequently, building one small -automobile such as the C1 produces as many emissions as making 171 steel -bicycles or 28 aluminum bicycles. Furthermore, cars also have a high carbon -footprint for fuel use, while bikes are entirely or partly human-powered. [21] -Electric cars have higher emissions for production but lower emissions for -operation (although that depends entirely on the carbon intensity of the power -grid). - -The bicycle even holds its advantage when its much shorter lifetime mileage is -taken into account. [22] Gasoline and diesel-powered cars now reach more than -300,000 km, double their lifetime in the 1960s and 1970s. [23] If a bicycle -lasts 20,000 km, it would take 15 bikes to cover 300,000 km. If those are steel -bicycles without an electric motor, the total carbon footprint for manufacturing -is still six times lower than for a small car: 1,050 kg of CO2. If the bikes are -made from aluminum and have electric motors, then emissions grow to 4,800 kg -CO2, still below the manufacturing carbon footprint of the small car. - -However, not every bicycle replaces a car. That is especially relevant for -shared and electric bikes: studies show that they mainly substitute for more -sustainable transport alternatives such as walking, using an unassisted or -private bicycle, or traveling on the subway. [19][24] In Paris, shared bikes -have three times higher emissions than electric public transportation. [8] In -addition, many carbon-intensive bicycles are bought for recreation and are not -meant to replace cars at all – they may even involve more car use as cyclists -drive out of town for a trip in nature. In all those cases, emissions go up, not -down. - -How to make bicycles sustainable again? - -In conclusion, there are several reasons why bicycles have become less -sustainable: the switch from steel to aluminum and other more energy-intensive -materials, the scaling up of the bicycle manufacturing industry, increasing -incompatibility and decreasing quality of components, the growing success of -electric bicycles, and the use of shared bike services. Most of these are not -problematic in themselves. Rather, it's the combination of trends that leads to -significant differences with bicycles from earlier generations. - -For example, based on data mentioned earlier, manufacturing an electric bicycle -made from steel would have a carbon footprint of 143 kg. Although that is four -times the emissions from an unassisted steel bicycle, it is below the carbon -footprint of an aluminum bicycle without an electric motor (212 kg). Especially -if the battery is charged with renewable energy, riding an electric bike can -thus be more sustainable than riding one without a motor. Likewise, an aluminum -bicycle with a long life expectancy – for example, through component -compatibility – could have a lower carbon footprint than a steel bicycle with a -more limited lifespan. - -Many researchers advocate switching back to producing bicycles from steel -instead of aluminium and other energy-intensive materials. That would bring -significant gains in sustainability for a relatively low cost – slightly heavier -bicycles. Steel frames would also make electric and shared bikes less carbon -intensive. Some researchers promote bamboo bike frames, but the benefit compared -to old-fashioned steel or even aluminium frames is unclear. [27] A “bamboo -bicycle” still requires wheels and many other parts made out of metal or carbon -fibre composites, and the frame tubes are usually held together by carbon fibre -or metal parts. [6] Furthermore, the bamboo is chemically treated against decay -and becomes non-biodegradable. [1] - - Reverting to domestic and less automated bike manufacturing is a requirement - for sustainable bicycles. - -Better component compatibility would increase the life expectancy of bicycles – -also electric ones – through repair and refurbishment. It would bring no -disadvantages for consumers, even on the contrary. However, unlike a switch to -steel frames, better component compatibility would hurt the sales of new -bicycles. A study concludes that “the abandonment of standardization is a -profitable business model because it ensures that bicycles can only be ridden -for so long.” [1] The decreasing sustainability of bikes is not a technological -problem, and it’s not unique to bicycles. We also see it in manufacturing other -products, such as computers[11]. One bike mechanic observes: “The problem here -is capitalism; it’s not the bikes.” [14] - -Reverting to domestic and less automated bike manufacturing is a requirement for -sustainable bicycles. The main reason is not the extra energy use generated by -transportation and machinery, which is relatively small. For example, shipping -from China adds around 0.7 to 1.2 gCO2/km for shared bicycles. [8] More -importantly, domestic and manual bike manufacturing is essential to make repair -and refurbishment the more economically attractive option. By definition, -repairing is local and manual, so it quickly becomes more expensive than -producing a new vehicle in a large-scale, automated factory. [10] Locally made -bicycles would increase the purchase price for consumers. However, better -repairability would allow for a longer life expectancy and a lower cost in the -long term. Addressing bike theft and parking problems is also essential because -they are often a reason for buying cheap, short-lasting bicycles. [25] - -Finally, shared bicycle services can have their place, and we will probably see -further improvements in their resource efficiency – the newest bike-sharing -stations in Paris have reduced their power consumption by a factor of six. [8] -However, shared bicycles are unlikely to become more sustainable than private -bicycles because they always require rebalancing and a high-tech infrastructure -to make the service work. Furthermore, getting attached to your bike can be a -strong incentive to take care of it well and thus increase its life expectancy, -as I can testify. - -Kris De Decker - - * Read Low-tech Magazine offline[12]. - * Subscribe to Low-tech Magazine's newsletter[13]. - * Support Low-tech Magazine via Paypal[14] or Patreon[15]. - -SOURCES - -[1] Szto, Courtney, and Brian Wilson. "Reduce, re-use, re-ride: Bike waste and -moving towards a circular economy for sporting goods." International Review for -the Sociology of Sport (2022): 10126902221138033. -https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/10126902221138033[16] - -[2] Johnson, Rebecca, Alice Kodama, and Regina Willensky. "The complete impact -of bicycle use: analyzing the environmental impact and initiative of the bicycle -industry." (2014). https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/ -8483/Duke_MP_Published.pdf[17] - -[3] Norcliffe, Glen, et al., eds. Routledge Companion to Cycling. Taylor & -Francis, 2022. https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Companion-to-Cycling/Norcliff -e-Brogan-Cox-Gao-Hadland-Hanlon-Jones-Oddy-Vivanco/p/book/9781003142041[18] - -[4] Cole, Emma. “What’s the environmental impact of a steel bicycle frame?” -Cyclist, November 7, 2022. https://www.cyclist.co.uk/in-depth/11003/steel-bike-f -rame-environmental-impact[19] - -[5] Mercer, Liam. “Starling Cycles publishes environmental footprint assessment -and policy.” Off-road.cc, July 2022. https://off.road.cc/content/news/starling-c -ycles-publishes-environmental-footprint-assessment-and-policy-10513[20] - -[6] Chang, Ya-Ju, Erwin M. Schau, and Matthias Finkbeiner. "Application of life -cycle sustainability assessment to the bamboo and aluminum bicycle in surveying -social risks of developing countries." 2nd World Sustainability Forum, Web -Conference. 2012. https://sciforum.net/manuscripts/953/original.pdf[21] - -[7] Chen, Jingrui, et al. "Life cycle carbon dioxide emissions of bike sharing -in China: Production, operation, and recycling." Resources, Conservation and -Recycling 162 (2020): 105011. -https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921344920303281[22] - -[8] De Bortoli, Anne. "Environmental performance of shared micromobility and -personal alternatives using integrated modal LCA." Transportation Research Part -D: Transport and Environment 93 (2021): 102743. -https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S136192092100047X[23] - -[9] Roy, Papon, Md Danesh Miah, and Md Tasneem Zafar. "Environmental impacts of -bicycle production in Bangladesh: a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment -approach." SN Applied Sciences 1 (2019): 1-16. -https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42452-019-0721-z[24] - -[10] Mao, Guozhu, et al. "How can bicycle-sharing have a sustainable future? A -research based on life cycle assessment." Journal of Cleaner Production 282 -(2021): 125081. -https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620351258[25] - -[11] Leuenberger, Marianne, and Rolf Frischknecht. "Life cycle assessment of two -wheel vehicles." ESU-Services Ltd.: Uster, Switzerland (2010). https://treeze.ch -/fileadmin/user_upload/downloads/Publications/Case_Studies/Mobility/leuenberger- -2010-TwoWheelVehicles.pdf[26] - -[12] Erik Bronsvoort & Matthijs Gerrits. “From marginal gains to a circular -revolution”. Paperback (full-colour): 160 pages, ISBN: 978-94-92004-93-2, Warden -Press, Amsterdam. https://circularcycling.nl/product/from-marginal-gains-to-a-ci -rcular-revolution/[27] - -[13] US petition that calls for end o built to fail bikes gaining support in BC. -https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/u-s-petition-that-calls-for-end-of-buil -t-to-fail-bikes-gaining-support-in-b-c[28] - -[14] Aaron Gordon. “Mechanics Ask Walmart, Major Bike Manufacturers to Stop -Making and Selling ‘Built-to-Fail’ Bikes”, Vice, January 13, 2022. https://www.v -ice.com/en/article/wxdgq9/mechanics-ask-walmart-major-bike-manufacturers-to-stop --making-and-selling-built-to-fail-bikes[29] - -[15] Koop, Carina, et al. "Circular business models for remanufacturing in the -electric bicycle industry." 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Resources, Conservation and Recycling 146 -(2019): 180-189. -https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921344919301090[34] - -[20] https://www.theguardian.com/environment/green-living-blog/2010/sep/23/carbo -n-footprint-new-car[35] - -[21] Bicycles are entirely or partly powered by food calories. Some people argue -that the life cycle energy requirements of bicycles are higher than other modes, -when one considers the impact of food require to provide additional calories -that are burned during the bicycle use. However, the majority of people in -car-centered societies take in more calories than their sedentary lifestyle -requires. 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