path: root/bookmarks/wikipedia on the roma.txt

---
title: Romani people - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
date: 2008-08-30T20:34:46Z
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_people
tags: culture, history, writing

---


Total population

2 million \~ 12
million^[[1]](#cite_note-1)^^[[2]](#cite_note-2)^^[[3]](#cite_note-3)^\
 Also see **[Romani people by
country](/wiki/Romani_people_by_country#Population_by_country "Romani people by country")**

Regions with significant populations

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png) [United
States](/wiki/United_States "United States")

1,000,000\
 (0.32%)^[[4]](#cite_note-time-4)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png) [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil")

800,000\
 (0.41%)^[[5]](#cite_note-5)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png) [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain")

650,000\
 (1.62%)^[[6]](#cite_note-6)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png) [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania")

621,573\
 (3.3%)^[[7]](#cite_note-7)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png) [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey")

500,000\
 (0.72%)^[[8]](#cite_note-Turkey-8)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png) [France](/wiki/France "France")

500,000\
 (0.79%)^[[9]](#cite_note-9)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png) [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria")

370,908\
 (4.67%)^[[10]](#cite_note-10)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png) [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary")

205,720\
 (2.02%)^[[11]](#cite_note-11)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png) [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece")

200,000\
 (1.82%)^[[12]](#cite_note-12)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png) [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia")

189,920\
 (1.71%)^[[13]](#cite_note-13)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png) [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia")

182,766\
 (0.13%)^[[14]](#cite_note-14)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png) [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia")

147,604\
 (2.05%)^[[15]](#cite_note-15)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png) [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy")

130,000\
 (0.22%)^[[16]](#cite_note-16)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png) [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany")

120,000\
 (0.15%)^[[17]](#cite_note-17)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png) [United
Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom")

90,000\
 (0.15%)^[[18]](#cite_note-18)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Macedonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Macedonia.svg.png) [Macedonia](/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia "Republic of Macedonia")

53,879\
 (2.85%)^[[19]](#cite_note-19)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png) [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico")

53,000\
 (0.05%)^[[20]](#cite_note-20)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png) [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden")

50,000 – 100,000^[[21]](#cite_note-21)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png) [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine")

47,587\
 (0.098%)^[[22]](#cite_note-22)^

![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png) [Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal")

30,000 – 50,000\
 (0.3%)

Languages

[Romani](/wiki/Romani_language "Romani language"), languages of native
region

Religion

[Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity")^[[23]](#cite_note-Gall.2C_Timothy_L._1998_pp._316.2C_318-23)^\

[Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam")^[[23]](#cite_note-Gall.2C_Timothy_L._1998_pp._316.2C_318-23)^\

[Shaktism](/wiki/Shaktism "Shaktism")^[[23]](#cite_note-Gall.2C_Timothy_L._1998_pp._316.2C_318-23)^

Related ethnic groups

[Dom](/wiki/Dom_people "Dom people"),
[Lom](/wiki/Lom_people "Lom people"), [Domba](/wiki/Domba "Domba");
other [Indo-Aryans](/wiki/Indo-Aryans "Indo-Aryans")

[![Page protected with pending changes level
1](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Padlock-silver-light.svg/20px-Padlock-silver-light.svg.png)](/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#pc1 "All edits by unregistered and new users are subject to review")

Part of [a series](/wiki/Category:Romani "Category:Romani") on

**Romani people**

[![Flag of the Romani
people](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_the_Romani_people.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Romani_people.svg.png)](/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Romani_people.svg "Flag of the Romani people")

-   [Culture](/wiki/Romani_society_and_culture "Romani society and culture")
-   [Music](/wiki/Romani_music "Romani music")
-   [Language](/wiki/Romani_language "Romani language")
-   [History](/wiki/History_of_the_Romani_people "History of the Romani people")
-   [Dance](/wiki/Romani_dance "Romani dance")
-   [Religion](/wiki/Romani_people#Religion "Romani people")
-   [People](/wiki/List_of_Romani_people "List of Romani people")

Diaspora[[show]](#)

-   [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Garachi "Garachi")
-   [Basque Country](/wiki/Erromintxela "Erromintxela")
-   [Bosnia-Herzegovina](/wiki/Roma_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Roma in Bosnia and Herzegovina")
-   [Boyash](/wiki/Boyash "Boyash")
-   [Brazil](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Portugal_and_Brazil "Romani people in Portugal and Brazil")
-   [Bulgaria](/wiki/Roma_in_Bulgaria "Roma in Bulgaria")
-   [Croatia](/wiki/Roma_of_Croatia "Roma of Croatia")
-   [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Roma_in_Czechoslovakia "Roma in Czechoslovakia")
-   [Czech
    Republic](/wiki/Roma_in_the_Czech_Republic "Roma in the Czech Republic")
-   [England](/wiki/Romanichal "Romanichal")
-   [Finland](/wiki/Finnish_Kale "Finnish Kale")
-   [France](/wiki/Romani_people_in_France "Romani people in France")
-   [Germany](/wiki/Sinti "Sinti")
-   [Greece](/wiki/Roma_in_Greece "Roma in Greece")
-   [Gurbeti](/wiki/Gurbeti "Gurbeti")
-   [Hungary](/wiki/Roma_in_Hungary "Roma in Hungary")
-   [Iran](/wiki/Zargari_people "Zargari people")
-   [Iraq](/wiki/Kawliya "Kawliya")
-   [Ireland](/wiki/Roma_in_Ireland "Roma in Ireland")
-   [Kalderash](/wiki/Roma_in_Kosovo "Roma in Kosovo")
-   [Kosovo](/wiki/Roma_in_Kosovo "Roma in Kosovo")
-   [Lăutari](/wiki/L%C4%83utari "Lăutari")
-   [Lovari](/wiki/Lovari "Lovari")
-   [Northern Basque Country](/wiki/Cascarots "Cascarots")
-   [Norway](/wiki/Norwegian_and_Swedish_Travellers "Norwegian and Swedish Travellers")
-   [Poland (Bergitka)](/wiki/Bergitka_Roma "Bergitka Roma")
-   [Poland (Polska)](/wiki/Polska_Roma "Polska Roma")
-   [Portugal](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Portugal_and_Brazil "Romani people in Portugal and Brazil")
-   [Republic of
    Macedonia](/wiki/Roma_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia "Roma in the Republic of Macedonia")
-   [Romania](/wiki/Roma_in_Romania "Roma in Romania")
-   [Russia (Ruska)](/wiki/Ruska_Roma "Ruska Roma")
-   [Russia (Servitka)](/wiki/Servitka_Roma "Servitka Roma")
-   [Serbia](/wiki/Roma_in_Serbia "Roma in Serbia")
-   [Serbia (Machvaya)](/wiki/Machvaya "Machvaya")
-   [Slovakia](/wiki/Roma_in_Slovakia "Roma in Slovakia")
-   [Spain](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Spain "Romani people in Spain")
-   [Sweden](/wiki/Norwegian_and_Swedish_Travellers "Norwegian and Swedish Travellers")
-   [Turkey](/wiki/Roma_in_Turkey "Roma in Turkey")
-   [Ukraine](/wiki/Roma_in_Ukraine "Roma in Ukraine")
-   [Ukraine (Crymy](/wiki/Crymy "Crymy")
-   [Ukraine (Servitka)](/wiki/Servitka_Roma "Servitka Roma")
-   [Ursari](/wiki/Ursari "Ursari")
-   [USA](/wiki/Roma_in_the_United_States "Roma in the United States")
-   [USA
    (Hungarian-Slovak)](/wiki/Hungarian_Slovak_Gypsies_in_the_United_States "Hungarian Slovak Gypsies in the United States")
-   [Wales](/wiki/Kale_(Welsh_Romanies) "Kale (Welsh Romanies)")

-   [![Portal
    icon](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_the_Romani_people.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Romani_people.svg.png)](/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Romani_people.svg)
    [Romani people
    portal](/wiki/Portal:Romani_people "Portal:Romani people")
-   [WikiProject](/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Romani_people "Wikipedia:WikiProject Romani people")

-   [v](/wiki/Template:Romani_people "Template:Romani people")
-   [t](/wiki/Template_talk:Romani_people "Template talk:Romani people")
-   [e](//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Romani_people&action=edit)

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J0525-0500-003%2C_Rheinland%2C_Sinti_und_Roma_mit_Wohnwagen_auf_Landstra%C3%9Fe.jpg/260px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J0525-0500-003%2C_Rheinland%2C_Sinti_und_Roma_mit_Wohnwagen_auf_Landstra%C3%9Fe.jpg)](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J0525-0500-003,_Rheinland,_Sinti_und_Roma_mit_Wohnwagen_auf_Landstra%C3%9Fe.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J0525-0500-003,_Rheinland,_Sinti_und_Roma_mit_Wohnwagen_auf_Landstra%C3%9Fe.jpg "Enlarge")

Romani Wagon in [Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") in 1935

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Gypsy_wagon%2C_Grandborough_Fields_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1256879.jpg/260px-Gypsy_wagon%2C_Grandborough_Fields_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1256879.jpg)](/wiki/File:Gypsy_wagon,_Grandborough_Fields_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1256879.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Gypsy_wagon,_Grandborough_Fields_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1256879.jpg "Enlarge")

Recent Romani wagon in [Grandborough](/wiki/Grandborough "Grandborough")
(Grandbourough Fields Road is a popular spot for travelling people)

The **Romani** (also spelled **Romany**), or **Roma**, are an
[ethnicity](/wiki/Ethnicity "Ethnicity") of
[Indian](/wiki/India "India") origin, living mostly [in
Europe](/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe "Ethnic groups in Europe") and the
[Americas](/wiki/Americas "Americas").^[[24]](#cite_note-24)^^[[25]](#cite_note-25)^
Romani are widely known among Anglophonic people by the
[exonym](/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym "Exonym and endonym")
"**[Gypsies](//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Gypsy "wikt:Gypsy")**" (or
**Gipsies**).

Romani are [widely dispersed](/wiki/Romani_diaspora "Romani diaspora"),
with their largest concentrated populations in Europe—especially Central
and Eastern Europe and [Anatolia](/wiki/Anatolia "Anatolia"),
[Iberia](/wiki/Iberia "Iberia"), and Southern France. They originated in
India and arrived in [Mid-West Asia](/wiki/Western_Asia "Western Asia"),
then Europe, at least 1,000 years
ago,^[[26]](#cite_note-kenrick_intro-26)^ either separating from the
[Dom people](/wiki/Dom_people "Dom people") or, at least, having a
similar history;^[[27]](#cite_note-What_is_Domari-27)^ the ancestors of
both the Romani and the Dom left [North
India](/wiki/North_India "North India") sometime between the sixth and
eleventh century.^[[26]](#cite_note-kenrick_intro-26)^

Since the nineteenth century, some Romani have also migrated to the
Americas. There are an estimated one million [Roma in the United
States](/wiki/Roma_in_the_United_States "Roma in the United States");^[[4]](#cite_note-time-4)^
and 800,000 in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the
nineteenth century from eastern Europe. Brazil also includes Romani
descended from people deported by the government of Portugal during the
Inquisition in the colonial era.^[[28]](#cite_note-28)^ In migrations
since the late nineteenth century, Romani have also moved to Canada and
countries in South America.^[[29]](#cite_note-29)^

The [Romani language](/wiki/Romani_language "Romani language") is
divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of
speakers larger than two million.^[[30]](#cite_note-30)^ The total
number of Romani people is at least twice as large (several times as
large according to high estimates). Many Romani are native speakers of
the language current in their country of residence, or of [mixed
languages](/wiki/Mixed_language "Mixed language") combining the two;
those [varieties](/wiki/Variety_(linguistics) "Variety (linguistics)")
are sometimes called
[Para-Romani](/wiki/Para-Romani "Para-Romani").^[[31]](#cite_note-31)^

Contents
--------

 [[hide](#)] 

-   [1 Names](#Names)
    -   [1.1 Romani usage](#Romani_usage)
    -   [1.2 English usage](#English_usage)
    -   [1.3 Other designations](#Other_designations)

-   [2 Population and subgroups](#Population_and_subgroups)
    -   [2.1 Romani population](#Romani_population)
    -   [2.2 Romani subgroups](#Romani_subgroups)

-   [3 History](#History)
    -   [3.1 Origins](#Origins)
        -   [3.1.1 Shahnameh legend](#Shahnameh_legend)
        -   [3.1.2 Linguistic evidence](#Linguistic_evidence)
        -   [3.1.3 Genetic evidence](#Genetic_evidence)
        -   [3.1.4 Possible migration route](#Possible_migration_route)

    -   [3.2 Arrival in Europe](#Arrival_in_Europe)
    -   [3.3 Early Modern history](#Early_Modern_history)
    -   [3.4 Modern history](#Modern_history)
        -   [3.4.1 World War II](#World_War_II)
        -   [3.4.2 Post-1945](#Post-1945)

-   [4 Society and traditional
    culture](#Society_and_traditional_culture)
    -   [4.1 Belonging and exclusion](#Belonging_and_exclusion)
    -   [4.2 Religion](#Religion)
        -   [4.2.1 Beliefs](#Beliefs)
        -   [4.2.2 Deities and saints](#Deities_and_saints)
        -   [4.2.3 Ceremonies and practices](#Ceremonies_and_practices)
        -   [4.2.4 Balkans](#Balkans)
        -   [4.2.5 Other regions](#Other_regions)

    -   [4.3 Music](#Music)

-   [5 Contemporary art and culture](#Contemporary_art_and_culture)
-   [6 Language](#Language)
-   [7 Persecutions](#Persecutions)
    -   [7.1 Historical persecution](#Historical_persecution)
    -   [7.2 Holocaust](#Holocaust)
    -   [7.3 Forced assimilation](#Forced_assimilation)

-   [8 Contemporary issues](#Contemporary_issues)
    -   [8.1 Forced repatriation](#Forced_repatriation)

-   [9 Fictional representations](#Fictional_representations)
    -   [9.1 In contemporary literature](#In_contemporary_literature)

-   [10 See also](#See_also)
-   [11 References](#References)
-   [12 External links](#External_links)

Names[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=1 "Edit section: Names")]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Main article: [Names of the Romani
people](/wiki/Names_of_the_Romani_people "Names of the Romani people")

### Romani usage[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=2 "Edit section: Romani usage")]

In the [Romani language](/wiki/Romani_language "Romani language"), *Rom*
is a masculine noun, meaning 'man of the Roma ethnic group' or 'man,
husband', with the plural *Roma*. The feminine of *Rom* in the Romani
language is *Romni*. However, in most cases, in other languages *Rom* is
now used for both a man and a woman.^[[32]](#cite_note-words-32)^

*Romani* is the feminine adjective, while *romano* is the masculine
adjective. Some Romanies use *Rom* or *Roma* as an ethnic name, while
others (such as the [Sinti](/wiki/Sinti "Sinti"), or the
[Romanichal](/wiki/Romanichal "Romanichal")) do not use this term as a
self-ascription for the entire ethnic
group.^[[33]](#cite_note-We-Are-the-Romani-People-Pg-XIX-33)^

Sometimes, *rom* and *romani* are spelled with a double *r*, i.e.,
*rrom* and *rromani*. In this case *rr* is used to represent the phoneme
/ʀ/ (also written as *ř* and *rh*), which in some Romani dialects has
remained different from the one written with a single *r*. The *rr*
spelling is common in certain institutions (such as the [INALCO
Institute](/wiki/Institut_national_des_langues_et_civilisations_orientales "Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales")
in Paris), or used in certain countries, e.g.
[Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania"), in order to distinguish from the
[endonym](/wiki/Endonym "Endonym")/[homonym](/wiki/Homonym "Homonym")
for [Romanians](/wiki/Romanians "Romanians") (*sg. român, pl.
români*).^[[32]](#cite_note-words-32)^^[[34]](#cite_note-We-Are-the-Romani-People-Pg-XXI-34)^

### English usage[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=3 "Edit section: English usage")]

In the [English language](/wiki/English_language "English language")
(according to the [Oxford English
Dictionary](/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary "Oxford English Dictionary")),
*Rom* is a noun (with the plural *Roma* or *Roms*) and an adjective,
while *Romani* (*Romany*) is also a noun (with the plural *Romanies* or
*Romanis*) and an adjective. Both *Rom* and *Romani* have been in use in
English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy. *Romani* was
initially spelled *Rommany*, then *Romany*, while today the *Romani*
spelling is the most popular spelling. Occasionally, the double *r*
spelling (e.g., *Rroma*, *Rromani*) mentioned above is also encountered
in English texts.

The term *Roma* is increasingly encountered during recent
decades,^[[35]](#cite_note-35)^^[[36]](#cite_note-36)^ as a generic term
for the Romani
people.^[[37]](#cite_note-37)^^[[38]](#cite_note-Garner-38)^^[[39]](#cite_note-Dictionaryof2002-39)^^[[40]](#cite_note-40)^

Because all Romanies use the word *Romani* as an adjective, the term
began to be used as a noun for the entire ethnic
group.^[[41]](#cite_note-We-Are-the-Romani-People-Pg-XX-41)^ Today, the
term *Romani* is used by some organizations — including the [United
Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") and the US Library of
Congress.^[[34]](#cite_note-We-Are-the-Romani-People-Pg-XXI-34)^

However, the [Council of
Europe](/wiki/Council_of_Europe "Council of Europe") and other
organizations consider that *Roma* is the correct term referring to all
related groups, regardless of their country of origin, and recommend
that *Romani* be restricted to the language and culture: [Romani
language](/wiki/Romani_language "Romani language"), [Romani
culture](/wiki/Romani_society_and_culture "Romani society and culture").^[[32]](#cite_note-words-32)^

The standard assumption is that the [demonyms](/wiki/Demonym "Demonym")
of the Romani people, [Lom](/wiki/Lom_people "Lom people") and
[Dom](/wiki/Dom_people "Dom people") share the same
origin.^[[42]](#cite_note-42)^^[[43]](#cite_note-43)^

### Other designations[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=4 "Edit section: Other designations")]

See also: [Gypsy (term)](/wiki/Gypsy_(term) "Gypsy (term)")

The English term *Gypsy* (or *Gipsy*) originates from the [Middle
English](/wiki/Middle_English "Middle English") *gypcian*, short for
*Egipcien*. It is ultimately derived from the Greek Αἰγύπτιοι
(*Aigyptioi*), meaning Egyptian, via [Middle
French](/wiki/Middle_French "Middle French") and
[Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin"). This designation owes its existence to the
belief, common in the Middle Ages, that the Romani, or some related
group (such as the middle eastern [Dom
people](/wiki/Dom_people "Dom people")), were itinerant
Egyptians.^[[44]](#cite_note-Soulis-44)^^[[45]](#cite_note-White_1999-45)^
According to one narrative they were exiled from Egypt as punishment for
allegedly harbouring the [infant
Jesus](/wiki/Child_Jesus "Child Jesus").^[[46]](#cite_note-Fraser1992-46)^
As described in [Victor Hugo](/wiki/Victor_Hugo "Victor Hugo")'s novel
*[The Hunchback of Notre
Dame](/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre_Dame "The Hunchback of Notre Dame")*,
the medieval French referred to the Romanies as *Egyptiens*. The word
*Gypsy* in [English](/wiki/English_Language "English Language") has
become so pervasive that many Romani organizations use it in their own
organizational names.

This [exonym](/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym "Exonym and endonym") is
sometimes written with capital letter, to show that it designates an
[ethnic
group](/wiki/Ethnic_group "Ethnic group").^[[47]](#cite_note-47)^ The
term 'Gypsy' appears when international research programmes, documents
and policies on the community are referred
to.^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
However, the word is often considered derogatory because of its negative
and stereotypical
associations.^[[38]](#cite_note-Garner-38)^^[[39]](#cite_note-Dictionaryof2002-39)^^[[48]](#cite_note-Thenew2007-48)^^[[49]](#cite_note-MerriamWebsterpocket1998-49)^^[[50]](#cite_note-Garner2009-50)^^[[51]](#cite_note-Baskin-51)^^[[52]](#cite_note-RomaReport-52)^
The Council of Europe consider that 'Gypsy' or equivalent terms, as well
as administrative terms such as 'Gens du Voyage' (referring in fact to
an ethnic group but not acknowledging ethnic identification) are not in
line with European recommendations.^[[32]](#cite_note-words-32)^ In
[North America](/wiki/North_America "North America"), the word *Gypsy*
is most commonly used as a reference to Romani
ethnicity,^[[53]](#cite_note-53)^ though lifestyle and fashion are at
times also referenced by using this word.^[[54]](#cite_note-54)^

Another common designation of the Romani people is *Cingane* (alt.
Tsinganoi, Zigar, Zigeuner) which probably derives from
*[Athinganoi](/wiki/Athinganoi "Athinganoi")*, the name of a Christian
sect with whom the Romani (or some related group) became associated with
in the Middle
Ages.^[[45]](#cite_note-White_1999-45)^^[[55]](#cite_note-Starr-55)^^[[56]](#cite_note-56)^^[[57]](#cite_note-57)^
The Spanish term
*[gitano](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Spain "Romani people in Spain")* and
the French term *gitan* have a more uncertain origin but could originate
from any of the two main designations mentioned above or their
conflation and corruption.^[[58]](#cite_note-58)^

Population and subgroups[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=5 "Edit section: Population and subgroups")]
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

### Romani population[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=6 "Edit section: Romani population")]

Main article: [Romani
populations](/wiki/Romani_populations "Romani populations")

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  [![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png)](/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg)   This article **needs additional citations for [verification](/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability "Wikipedia:Verifiability")**. Please help [improve this article](//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit) by [adding citations to reliable sources](/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1 "Help:Introduction to referencing/1"). Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. *(August 2011)*
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

For a variety of reasons, many Romanies choose not to register their
ethnic identity in official censuses. There are an estimated four
million Romani people in Europe (as of 2002),^[[59]](#cite_note-59)^
although some high estimates by Romani organizations give numbers as
high as 14 million.^[[60]](#cite_note-60)^ Significant Romani
populations are found in the [Balkans](/wiki/Balkans "Balkans"), in some
Central European states, in Spain, France, Russia and Ukraine. Several
million more Romanies may live out of Europe, in particular in the
Middle East and in the
Americas.^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Greguss_J%C3%A1nos_S%C3%A1toros_cig%C3%A1nyok.jpg/290px-Greguss_J%C3%A1nos_S%C3%A1toros_cig%C3%A1nyok.jpg)](/wiki/File:Greguss_J%C3%A1nos_S%C3%A1toros_cig%C3%A1nyok.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Greguss_J%C3%A1nos_S%C3%A1toros_cig%C3%A1nyok.jpg "Enlarge")

A tent of Romani nomads in
[Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary "Kingdom of Hungary"), 19th century

### Romani subgroups[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=7 "Edit section: Romani subgroups")]

  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png)   **This section may be [too long](/wiki/Help:Section#Section_size_policies "Help:Section") and excessively detailed.** \
                                                                                                Please consider summarizing the material while [citing sources](/wiki/Wikipedia:CITE "Wikipedia:CITE") as needed. *(August 2014)*
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

As a result of the [caste system](/wiki/Caste_system "Caste system"),
inherited from India, and their movement on Asia, Europe, America and
Australia, many designations can be given to individual Roma groups.
^[[61]](#cite_note-61)^^[[62]](#cite_note-62)^

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Debret_casa_ciganos.jpg/290px-Debret_casa_ciganos.jpg)](/wiki/File:Debret_casa_ciganos.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Debret_casa_ciganos.jpg "Enlarge")

Interior of a gipsy's house in [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") c. 1820,
by [Debret](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Debret "Jean-Baptiste Debret")

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Emil_Volkers_Zigeunerlager_vor_D%C3%BCsseldorf.jpg/290px-Emil_Volkers_Zigeunerlager_vor_D%C3%BCsseldorf.jpg)](/wiki/File:Emil_Volkers_Zigeunerlager_vor_D%C3%BCsseldorf.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Emil_Volkers_Zigeunerlager_vor_D%C3%BCsseldorf.jpg "Enlarge")

Camping gypsies near [Düsseldorf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf "Düsseldorf"),
Germany, c. 1905, by Emil Volkers

All-encompassing self-description is always
"Rom".^[[63]](#cite_note-63)^ Even when some groups are not using an
endonym "Roma", they all acknowledge a common origin and a dichotomy
Roma-[Gadjo](/wiki/Gadjo_(non-Romani) "Gadjo (non-Romani)").^[[64]](#cite_note-64)^

Other groups, using different endonyms are, for example:

-   [Finnish Kale](/wiki/Finnish_Kale "Finnish Kale"), in
    Finland;^[[65]](#cite_note-jurova_endonyma-65)^^[[66]](#cite_note-66)^
    the same endonym with Spanish Calé is probably a
    coincidence.^[[67]](#cite_note-Milena_2003-67)^
-   [Iberian Kale](/wiki/Cal%C3%A9 "Calé"), mostly in Spain (see [Romani
    people in
    Spain](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Spain "Romani people in Spain"), also
    known as *gitanos*), but also in Portugal (see [Romani people in
    Portugal](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Portugal "Romani people in Portugal"),
    also known as
    *ciganos*)^[[65]](#cite_note-jurova_endonyma-65)^^[[68]](#cite_note-rombase_cale-68)^
    ["Kala"](/wiki/K%C4%81la_(time)#Etymology "Kāla (time)") or "kale"
    means "black" in Sanskrit, neo-Indian languages and the Romani
    language.^[[68]](#cite_note-rombase_cale-68)^ They use the word
    "Kale" for their language, which is
    para-Romani.^[[69]](#cite_note-69)^ For their language, see [Caló
    language](/wiki/Cal%C3%B3_language "Caló language").
-   [Welsh Kale](/wiki/Kale_(Welsh_Romanies) "Kale (Welsh Romanies)"),
    in Wales, originally from Spain ^[[70]](#cite_note-70)^
-   [Manush](/wiki/Romani_populations#France "Romani populations") in
    France^[[65]](#cite_note-jurova_endonyma-65)^^[[71]](#cite_note-rombase_manush-71)^
    They are a sub-group of Sinti.^[[71]](#cite_note-rombase_manush-71)^
    The word "Manush" means "person" in
    [Sanskrit](/wiki/Sanskrit "Sanskrit"), neo-Indian languages and the
    Romani
    language.^[[71]](#cite_note-rombase_manush-71)^^[[72]](#cite_note-72)^
-   [Romanichal](/wiki/Romanichal "Romanichal"), in the United
    Kingdom,^[[65]](#cite_note-jurova_endonyma-65)^^[[67]](#cite_note-Milena_2003-67)^
    emigrated also to the [United
    States](/wiki/Roma_in_the_United_States "Roma in the United States")
    and
    Australia^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
-   [Romanisæl](/wiki/Norwegian_and_Swedish_Travellers "Norwegian and Swedish Travellers"),
    in Sweden and
    Norway.^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
-   [Sinti](/wiki/Sinti "Sinti"), in
    [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany")^[[65]](#cite_note-jurova_endonyma-65)^^[[73]](#cite_note-rombase_sinti-73)^
    and [Northern Italy](/wiki/Northern_Italy "Northern Italy"). Sinti
    do not speak of themselves as Roma, but they use "romanes" as a name
    for their language.^[[73]](#cite_note-rombase_sinti-73)^

Other Romani sub-groups include:

-   Bashaldé^[[74]](#cite_note-74)^
-   [Boyash](/wiki/Boyash "Boyash") (Lingurari,
    [Ludar](/wiki/Ludar "Ludar"), Ludari, Rudari, or
    Zlătari)^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
    from [Romanian](/wiki/Romanian_language "Romanian language") words
    for various crafts: *Lingurari* (spoon
    makers),^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
    *Rudari* (wood crafters or miners)^[[75]](#cite_note-75)^ or
    "băieşi" (miners); the semantic overlapping occurring due to the
    [homophony](/wiki/Homophony "Homophony") of two different notions:
    in [Serbian](/wiki/Serbian_language "Serbian language"), *ruda*
    "ore", hence *rudar* "miner," and *ruda* "stick, staff, rod, bar,
    pole" (in [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_language "Hungarian language")
    [*rúd*](http://dict.sztaki.hu/dict_search.php?L=ENG%3AHUN%3AEngHunDict&O=ENG&flash=&E=1&sid=86b98964fc5d964f0ee812b299c28fd5&vk=&in_form=1&W=rúd&M=1&P=0&C=1&T=1),
    and in [Romanian](/wiki/Romanian_language "Romanian language")
    [*rudă*](http://dexonline.ro/definitie/rudă), lemma no. 2)
-   Churari^[[76]](#cite_note-76)^
-   Erlides (also *Yerlii* or *Arli*), in Greece
-   [Kalderash](/wiki/Kalderash "Kalderash"), primarily from
    [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania"), from which they spread into
    [Bessarabia](/wiki/Bessarabia "Bessarabia") and
    [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine")
-   [Lovari](/wiki/Lovari "Lovari"), from Hungary^[[77]](#cite_note-77)^
    -   Machvaya, from Serbia^[[78]](#cite_note-rombase_list-78)^

-   Lalleri, from [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria") and
    [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), as well as western [Czech
    Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic")("[Sudetenland](/wiki/Sudetenland "Sudetenland")").
-   Luri ^[[78]](#cite_note-rombase_list-78)^
-   [Romungro](/wiki/Romungro "Romungro")
    ([Modyar](/wiki/Modyar "Modyar") or [Modgar](/wiki/Modgar "Modgar"))
    from Hungary and neighbouring
    [Carpathian](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains "Carpathian Mountains")
    countries^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
-   Ungaritza^[[79]](#cite_note-79)^
-   [Ursari](/wiki/Ursari "Ursari") (bear-trainers; in
    [Romanian](/wiki/Romanian_language "Romanian language") *urs*
    "bear")^[[78]](#cite_note-rombase_list-78)^
-   [Muslim Roma](/wiki/Muslim_Roma "Muslim Roma") (Horahane), living
    [in Greece](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Greece "Romani people in Greece")
    and [in
    Turkey](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Turkey "Romani people in Turkey")^[[78]](#cite_note-rombase_list-78)^
-   *Zlătari*/*Aurari* (goldsmiths)^[[78]](#cite_note-rombase_list-78)^
-   [Ashkali and Balkan
    Egyptians](/wiki/Ashkali_and_Balkan_Egyptians "Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians"),
    in the Balkans^[[80]](#cite_note-80)^

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Francisco_Iturrino_Two_Gypsies.jpg/200px-Francisco_Iturrino_Two_Gypsies.jpg)](/wiki/File:Francisco_Iturrino_Two_Gypsies.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Francisco_Iturrino_Two_Gypsies.jpg "Enlarge")

Two Romani women in Spain, by [Francisco
Iturrino](/wiki/Francisco_Iturrino "Francisco Iturrino")

History[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=8 "Edit section: History")]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Main article: [History of the Romani
people](/wiki/History_of_the_Romani_people "History of the Romani people")

### Origins[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=9 "Edit section: Origins")]

Findings suggest an [Indian](/wiki/India "India") origin for
Roma.^[[81]](#cite_note-Isabel-81)^^[[82]](#cite_note-Comas-82)^ Because
Romani groups didn't keep chronicles of their history or have oral
accounts of it, most hypotheses about Romani's migration early history
are based on linguistic theory.^[[83]](#cite_note-83)^ There is also no
known record of a migration from India to Europe from medieval times
that can be connected indisputably to Roma.^[[84]](#cite_note-84)^
However, the linguistic findings about their Indian origin have been
corroborated by genetic studies, carried out on a number of Romani
populations^[[85]](#cite_note-Gresham2001-85)^^[[86]](#cite_note-Isabel2012-86)^^[[87]](#cite_note-87)^
Some genetic studies specifically link them to the [Jat
people](/wiki/Jat_people "Jat people") of modern-day northern India and
Pakistan.^[[88]](#cite_note-Jatt_mutation-88)^^[[89]](#cite_note-89)^^[[90]](#cite_note-radoc.net-90)^

#### Shahnameh legend[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=10 "Edit section: Shahnameh legend")]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg/220px-Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg)](/wiki/File:Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg "Enlarge")

An illustration of "[Bahrām V Gōr](/wiki/Bahram_V "Bahram V") and the
Indian princess in the black pavilion."

According to a legend reported in
*[Shahnameh](/wiki/Shahnameh "Shahnameh")* and repeated by several
modern authors, the [Sasanian](/wiki/Sasanian "Sasanian") king [Bahrām V
Gōr](/wiki/Bahram_V "Bahram V") learned towards the end of his reign
(421–39) that the poor could not afford to enjoy music, and he asked the
king of India to send him ten thousand *luris*, men and women, lute
playing experts. When the luris arrived, Bahrām gave each one an ox and
a donkey and a donkey-load of wheat so that they could live on
agriculture and play music gratuitously for the poor. But the luris ate
the oxen and the wheat and came back a year later with their cheeks
hollowed with hunger. The king was angered with their having wasted what
he had given them, ordered them to pack up their bags on their asses and
go wandering around the world.^[[91]](#cite_note-GYPSY_i-91)^

#### Linguistic evidence[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=11 "Edit section: Linguistic evidence")]

The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that roots of Romani
language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of
Indian languages and shares with them a big part of the basic lexicon,
for example, body parts or daily
routines.^[[92]](#cite_note-mluvnice-92)^

More exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with Hindi and
[Punjabi](/wiki/Punjabi_language "Punjabi language"). It shares many
phonetic features with
[Marwari](/wiki/Marwari_(language) "Marwari (language)"), while its
grammar is closest to
[Bengali](/wiki/Bengali_language "Bengali language").^[[93]](#cite_note-hub1995-93)^

Romani and [Domari](/wiki/Domari_language "Domari language") share some
similarities: agglutination of postpositions of the second Layer (or
case marking clitics) to the nominal stem, concordmarkers for the past
tense, the neutralisation of gender marking in the plural, and the use
of the oblique case as an
accusative.^[[94]](#cite_note-mat2002_domari-94)^^[[95]](#cite_note-95)^
This has prompted much discussion about the relationships between these
two languages. [Domari](/wiki/Domari_language "Domari language") was
once thought to be the "sister language" of Romani, the two languages
having split after the departure from the Indian subcontinent, but more
recent research suggests that the differences between them are
significant enough to treat them as two separate languages within the
[Central zone](/wiki/Central_zone "Central zone")
([Hindustani](/wiki/Hindustani_language "Hindustani language")) group of
languages. The Dom and the Rom therefore likely descend from two
different migration waves out of India, separated by several
centuries.^[[27]](#cite_note-What_is_Domari-27)^^[[96]](#cite_note-ROMANI_ORIGINS-96)^

[Numerals](/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics) "Numeral (linguistics)") in the
[Romani](/wiki/Romani_language "Romani language"),
[Domari](/wiki/Domari_language "Domari language") and
[Lomavren](/wiki/Lomavren "Lomavren") languages, with
[Hindi](/wiki/Hindi "Hindi") and
[Persian](/wiki/Persian_language "Persian language") forms for
comparison.^[[97]](#cite_note-97)^ Note that Romani 7–9 are borrowed
from Greek.

Hindi

Romani

Domari

Lomavren

Persian

1

ek

ekh, jekh

yika

yak, yek

yak, yek

2

do

duj

dī

lui

du, do

3

tīn

trin

tærən

tərin

se

4

cār

štar

štar

išdör

čahār

5

pāñc

pandž

pandž

pendž

pandž

6

che

šov

šaš

šeš

šaš, šeš

7

sāt

ifta

xaut

haft

haft

8

āţh

oxto

xaišt

hašt

hašt

9

nau

inja

na

nu

nuh, noh

10

das

deš

des

las

dah

20

bīs

biš

wīs

vist

bist

100

sau

šel

saj

saj

sad

#### Genetic evidence[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=12 "Edit section: Genetic evidence")]

Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwest
[India](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") and migrated as a
group.^[[81]](#cite_note-Isabel-81)^^[[82]](#cite_note-Comas-82)^^[[98]](#cite_note-98)^
According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled
tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally
referred to collectively as the [Ḍoma](/wiki/%E1%B8%8Coma "Ḍoma"), are
the likely ancestral populations of modern European
Roma.^[[99]](#cite_note-99)^ In December 2012, additional findings
appeared to confirm the "Roma came from a single group that left
northwestern India about 1,500 years
ago.^[*[dubious](/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement "Wikipedia:Disputed statement")\\ –\\ [discuss](/wiki/Talk:Romani_people#Dubious "Talk:Romani people")*]^"^[[82]](#cite_note-Comas-82)^
They reached the Balkans about 900 years ago, and then spread throughout
Europe. The team found that, despite some isolation, the Roma were
"genetically similar to other
Europeans."^[[81]](#cite_note-Isabel-81)^^[[82]](#cite_note-Comas-82)^
Contemporary populations suggested as sharing a close relationship to
the Romani are the [Dom people](/wiki/Dom_people "Dom people") of
Western Asia and North Africa, and the
[Banjara](/wiki/Banjara "Banjara") of India.^[[100]](#cite_note-100)^

Genetic evidence supports the mediaeval migration from India. The Romani
have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder
populations",^[[101]](#cite_note-Luba_Kalaydjieva-101)^ while a number
of common
[Mendelian](/wiki/List_of_Mendelian_traits_in_humans "List of Mendelian traits in humans")
disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates "a common origin
and [founder
effect](/wiki/Founder_effect "Founder effect")".^[[101]](#cite_note-Luba_Kalaydjieva-101)^^[[102]](#cite_note-102)^
A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of
related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting
from a distinct caste or tribal
group".^[[103]](#cite_note-David_Gresham-103)^ The same study found that
"a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for
almost one-third of Romani
males."^[[103]](#cite_note-David_Gresham-103)^ A 2004 study by Morar et
al. concluded that the Romani population "was founded approximately
32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events
occurring approximately 16–25 generations
ago".^[[104]](#cite_note-Bharti_Morar-104)^ The discovery in 2009 of the
"Jat mutation" that causes a type of
[glaucoma](/wiki/Glaucoma "Glaucoma") in Romani populations suggests
that the Romani people are the descendants of the [Jat
people](/wiki/Jat_people "Jat people") found in the [Indian
subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent "Indian subcontinent").^[[88]](#cite_note-Jatt_mutation-88)^^[[105]](#cite_note-105)^
This relation to Jats had earlier been suggested by [Michael Jan de
Goeje](/wiki/Michael_Jan_de_Goeje "Michael Jan de Goeje") in
1883.^[[106]](#cite_note-106)^ The 2009 glaucoma study, however,
contradicts an earlier study that compared the most common haplotypes
found in Romani groups with those found in Jat Sikhs and Jats from
Haryana and found no matches.^[[107]](#cite_note-107)^

#### Possible migration route[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=13 "Edit section: Possible migration route")]

They may have emerged from the modern Indian state of
[Rajasthan](/wiki/Rajasthan "Rajasthan"),^[[108]](#cite_note-108)^
migrating to the northwest (the [Punjab
region](/wiki/Punjab_region "Punjab region"),
[Sindh](/wiki/Sindh "Sindh") and
[Baluchistan](/wiki/Baluchistan "Baluchistan") of the [Indian
subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent "Indian subcontinent")) around
250 BC. In the centuries spent here, there may have been close
interaction with these established groups such as the
[Rajputs](/wiki/Rajputs "Rajputs") and the [Jats](/wiki/Jats "Jats").
Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed
to have occurred beginning in about AD
500.^[*[dubious](/wiki/Wikipedia:Disputed_statement "Wikipedia:Disputed statement")\\ –\\ [discuss](/wiki/Talk:Romani_people#Dubious "Talk:Romani people")*]^^[[82]](#cite_note-Comas-82)^
It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken
place in the context of the raids by [Mahmud of
Ghazni](/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni "Mahmud of Ghazni").^[[109]](#cite_note-109)^
As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their
families into the [Byzantine
Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire"). The 11th century
*[terminus post quem](/wiki/Terminus_post_quem "Terminus post quem")* is
due to the Romani language showing unambiguous features of the [Modern
Indo-Aryan](/wiki/Modern_Indo-Aryan "Modern Indo-Aryan")
languages,^[[110]](#cite_note-110)^ precluding an emigration during the
[Middle Indic](/wiki/Middle_Indic "Middle Indic") period.

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Movimiento_gitano.jpg/330px-Movimiento_gitano.jpg)](/wiki/File:Movimiento_gitano.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Movimiento_gitano.jpg "Enlarge")

The migration of the Romanies through the [Middle
East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") and [Northern
Africa](/wiki/Northern_Africa "Northern Africa") to Europe

### Arrival in Europe[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=14 "Edit section: Arrival in Europe")]

Though according to a 2012 genomic study, the Romani reached the Balkans
as early as the 12th century,^[[111]](#cite_note-111)^ the first
historical records of the Romani reaching south-eastern Europe are from
the 14th century: in 1322, an Irish
[Franciscan](/wiki/Franciscan "Franciscan") monk, [Symon
Semeonis](/wiki/Symon_Semeonis "Symon Semeonis") encountered a migrant
group, "the descendants of [Cain](/wiki/Cain "Cain")", outside the town
of [Heraklion](/wiki/Heraklion "Heraklion") (Candia), in
[Crete](/wiki/Crete "Crete"). Symon's account is probably the earliest
surviving description by a Western chronicler of the Romani people in
Europe. In 1350, [Ludolphus](/wiki/Ludolphus "Ludolphus") of
[Sudheim](/wiki/Sudheim "Sudheim") mentioned a similar people with a
unique language whom he called *Mandapolos*, a word which some theorize
was derived from the Greek word *mantes* (meaning prophet or fortune
teller).^[[112]](#cite_note-112)^ Around 1360, a
[fiefdom](/wiki/Fiefdom "Fiefdom"), called the *[Feudum
Acinganorum](/wiki/Feudum_Acinganorum "Feudum Acinganorum")* was
established in [Corfu](/wiki/Corfu "Corfu"), which mainly used Romani
serfs and to which the Romani on the island were
subservient.^[[113]](#cite_note-113)^^[[114]](#cite_note-114)^ By 1424,
they were recorded in
Germany;^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
and by the 16th century, Scotland and
Sweden.^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
Some Romani migrated from [Persia](/wiki/Persia "Persia") through North
Africa,^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
reaching the [Iberian
Peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula "Iberian Peninsula") in the 15th
century.^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
The two currents met in
France.^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Spiezer_Schilling_749.jpg/220px-Spiezer_Schilling_749.jpg)](/wiki/File:Spiezer_Schilling_749.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Spiezer_Schilling_749.jpg "Enlarge")

First arrival of the Romanies outside [Bern](/wiki/Bern "Bern") in the
15th century, described by the chronicler as *getoufte heiden*
(“baptized heathens”) and drawn with dark skin and wearing
[Saracen](/wiki/Saracen "Saracen")-style clothing and weapons ([Spiezer
Schilling](/wiki/Spiezer_Schilling "Spiezer Schilling"), p. 749)

### Early Modern history[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=15 "Edit section: Early Modern history")]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Sclavi_Tiganesti.jpg/170px-Sclavi_Tiganesti.jpg)](/wiki/File:Sclavi_Tiganesti.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Sclavi_Tiganesti.jpg "Enlarge")

An 1852 [Wallachian](/wiki/Wallachia "Wallachia") poster advertising an
auction of Romani slaves in [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest "Bucharest").

Their early history shows a mixed reception. Although 1385 marks the
first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in
[Wallachia](/wiki/Wallachia "Wallachia"), they were issued safe conduct
by [Holy Roman Emperor
Sigismund](/wiki/Sigismund,_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor")
in 1417.^[[115]](#cite_note-kenrick-115)^ Romanies were ordered expelled
from the [Meissen](/wiki/Meissen "Meissen") region of Germany in 1416,
[Lucerne](/wiki/Lucerne "Lucerne") in 1471, [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan")
in 1493, [France](/wiki/France "France") in 1504,
[Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia "Catalonia") in 1512,
[Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") in 1525,
[England](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England "Kingdom of England") in 1530 (see
[Egyptians Act 1530](/wiki/Egyptians_Act_1530 "Egyptians Act 1530")),
and [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") in
1536.^[[115]](#cite_note-kenrick-115)^ In 1510, any Romani found in
Switzerland were ordered to be put to death, with similar rules
established in England in 1554, and Denmark in 1589, whereas
[Portugal](/wiki/Portugal "Portugal") began deportations of Romanies to
its colonies in 1538.^[[115]](#cite_note-kenrick-115)^

Later, a 1596 English statute, however, gave Romanies special privileges
that other wanderers lacked; France passed a similar law in 1683.
[Catherine the Great of
Russia](/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia "Catherine II of Russia") declared
the Romanies "crown slaves" (a status superior to
[serfs](/wiki/Serfs "Serfs")), but also kept them out of certain parts
of [the
capital](/wiki/St._Petersburg,_Russia "St. Petersburg, Russia").^[[116]](#cite_note-Norman_Davies_1996_387.E2.80.93388-116)^
In 1595, [Ştefan Răzvan](/wiki/%C5%9Etefan_R%C4%83zvan "Ştefan Răzvan")
overcame his birth into slavery, and became the
[Voivode](/wiki/Voivode "Voivode")
([Prince](/wiki/List_of_Moldavian_rulers "List of Moldavian rulers")) of
[Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia "Moldavia").^[[115]](#cite_note-kenrick-115)^

Although some Romani could be kept as slaves in
[Wallachia](/wiki/Wallachia "Wallachia") and
[Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia "Moldavia"), until
[abolition](/wiki/Abolitionism "Abolitionism") in 1856, the majority
were traveling as free nomads with their wagons, as it is resembled at
their flag.^[[117]](#cite_note-117)^ Elsewhere in Europe, they were
subject to [ethnic
cleansing](/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing "Ethnic cleansing"), abduction of
their children, and [forced labor](/wiki/Forced_labor "Forced labor").
In England, Romani were sometimes expelled from small communities or
hanged; in France, they were branded and their heads were shaved; in
[Moravia](/wiki/Moravia "Moravia") and
[Bohemia](/wiki/Bohemia "Bohemia"), the women were marked by their ears
being severed. As a result, large groups of the Romani moved to the
East, toward
[Poland](/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth"),
which was more tolerant, and Russia, where the Romani were treated more
fairly as long as they paid the annual taxes.^[[118]](#cite_note-118)^

### Modern history[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=16 "Edit section: Modern history")]

Romani began emigrating to North America in colonial times, with small
groups recorded in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia") and [French
Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France) "Louisiana (New France)").
Larger-scale [Roma emigration to the United
States](/wiki/Roma_in_the_United_States "Roma in the United States")
began in the 1860s, with groups of Romnaichal from [Great
Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain"). The largest number
immigrated in the early 1900s, mainly from the Vlax group of
[Kalderash](/wiki/Kalderash "Kalderash"). Many Romani also settled in
South America.

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-52%2C_Asperg%2C_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg/260px-Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-52%2C_Asperg%2C_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg)](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-52,_Asperg,_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-52,_Asperg,_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg "Enlarge")

[Sinti](/wiki/Sinti "Sinti") and other Romani about to be deported from
Germany, May 22, 1940.

#### World War II[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=17 "Edit section: World War II")]

Main article: [Porajmos](/wiki/Porajmos "Porajmos")

During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the
[Nazis](/wiki/Nazism "Nazism") and the
[Ustaša](/wiki/Usta%C5%A1a "Ustaša") embarked on a systematic
[genocide](/wiki/Genocide "Genocide") of the Romani, a process known in
Romani as the
*[Porajmos](/wiki/Porajmos "Porajmos")*.^[[119]](#cite_note-Milton_estimates-119)^
Romanies were marked for extermination and sentenced to forced labor and
imprisonment in [concentration
camps](/wiki/Concentration_camp "Concentration camp").

They were often killed on sight, especially by the
[Einsatzgruppen](/wiki/Einsatzgruppen "Einsatzgruppen") (mobile killing
units) on the Eastern Front.^[[120]](#cite_note-120)^ The total number
of victims has been variously estimated at between 220,000 to 1,500,000;
even the lowest number would make the Porajmos one of the largest mass
killings in history.^[[121]](#cite_note-hancock2005-121)^

#### Post-1945[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=18 "Edit section: Post-1945")]

In [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia"), they were
labeled a "socially degraded stratum," and Romani women were sterilized
as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was
implemented with large financial incentives, threats of denying future
welfare payments, with misinformation, or after administering drugs
(Silverman 1995; [Helsinki Watch](/wiki/Helsinki_Watch "Helsinki Watch")
1991).

An official inquiry from the Czech Republic, resulting in a report
(December 2005), concluded that the Communist authorities had practiced
an assimilation policy towards Romanies, which "included efforts by
social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community". "The
problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic,
either with improper motivation or illegally, exists," said Czech Public
Defender of Rights, recommending state compensation for women affected
between 1973 and 1991.^[[122]](#cite_note-122)^ New cases were revealed
up until 2004, in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Germany, Norway,
Sweden and Switzerland “all have histories of coercive sterilization of
minorities and other groups.” ^[[123]](#cite_note-123)^

Society and traditional culture[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=19 "Edit section: Society and traditional culture")]
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Main article: [Romani society and
culture](/wiki/Romani_society_and_culture "Romani society and culture")

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/A_Gipsy_Family_Fac_simile_of_a_Woodcut_in_the_Cosmographie_Universelle_of_Munster_in_folio_Basle_1552.png/290px-A_Gipsy_Family_Fac_simile_of_a_Woodcut_in_the_Cosmographie_Universelle_of_Munster_in_folio_Basle_1552.png)](/wiki/File:A_Gipsy_Family_Fac_simile_of_a_Woodcut_in_the_Cosmographie_Universelle_of_Munster_in_folio_Basle_1552.png)

[](/wiki/File:A_Gipsy_Family_Fac_simile_of_a_Woodcut_in_the_Cosmographie_Universelle_of_Munster_in_folio_Basle_1552.png "Enlarge")

*A Gipsy Family*, facsimile of a woodcut in the
[*Cosmographia*](/wiki/Cosmographia_(Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster) "Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster)")
of [Sebastian Münster](/wiki/Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster "Sebastian Münster")
(Basle, 1552)

The traditional Romanies place a high value on the [extended
family](/wiki/Extended_family "Extended family").
[Virginity](/wiki/Virginity "Virginity") is essential in unmarried
women. Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy
in several countries over the Romani practice of [child
marriage](/wiki/Child_marriage "Child marriage"). Romani law establishes
that the man's family must pay a [bride
price](/wiki/Bride_price "Bride price") to the bride's parents, but only
traditional families still follow this rule.

Once married, the woman joins the husband's family, where her main job
is to tend to her husband's and her children's needs, as well as to take
care of her in-laws. The power structure in the traditional Romani
household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather, and men in
general have more authority than women. Women gain respect and authority
as they get older. Young wives begin gaining authority once they have
children.

Romani [social behavior](/wiki/Social_behavior "Social behavior") is
strictly regulated by [Hindu purity
laws](/wiki/Dharma "Dharma")^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
("marime" or "marhime"), still respected by most Roma (and by most older
generations of [Sinti](/wiki/Sinti "Sinti")). This regulation affects
many aspects of life, and is applied to actions, people and things:
parts of [the human body](/wiki/Human_anatomy "Human anatomy") are
considered impure: the [genital organs](/wiki/Sex_organ "Sex organ")
(because they produce emissions), as well as the rest of the lower body.
Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of
[menstruating](/wiki/Menstruation "Menstruation") women, are washed
separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place.
Childbirth is considered impure, and must occur outside the dwelling
place. The mother is considered impure for forty days after giving
birth.

Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead,
who remain impure for a period of time. In contrast to the practice of
[cremating](/wiki/Cremation "Cremation") the dead, Romani dead must be
buried.^[[124]](#cite_note-124)^ Cremation and burial are both known
from the time of the [Rigveda](/wiki/Rigveda "Rigveda"), and both are
widely practiced in [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") today
(although the tendency for Hindus groups is to burn, while some
communities in South India tend to bury their
dead).^[[125]](#cite_note-125)^ Some animals are also considered impure,
for instance cats because they lick their hindquarters. Horses, in
contrast, are not considered impure because they
cannot.^[[126]](#cite_note-126)^

### Belonging and exclusion[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=20 "Edit section: Belonging and exclusion")]

Main articles: [Romanipen](/wiki/Romanipen "Romanipen") and [Gadjo
(non-Romani)](/wiki/Gadjo_(non-Romani) "Gadjo (non-Romani)")

**Romanipen** (also *romanypen*, *romanipe*, *romanype*, *romanimos*,
*romaimos*, *romaniya*) is a complicated term of Romani philosophy that
means totality of the Romani spirit, [Romani
culture](/wiki/Romani_society_and_culture "Romani society and culture"),
[Romani Law](/wiki/Kris_(Romani_court) "Kris (Romani court)"), being a
Romani, a set of Romani strains.

An ethnic Romani is considered to be a [Gadjo
(non-Romani)](/wiki/Gadjo_(non-Romani) "Gadjo (non-Romani)") in the
Romani [society](/wiki/Society "Society") if he has no Romanipen.
Sometimes a non-Romani may be considered to be a Romani if he has
Romanipen; usually this is an adopted child. As a concept, Romanipen has
been the subject of interest to numerous academic observers. It has been
hypothesized that it owes more to a [framework of
culture](/wiki/Cultural_framework "Cultural framework") rather than
simply an adherence to historically received
rules.^[[127]](#cite_note-127)^

### Religion[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=21 "Edit section: Religion")]

  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  [![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png)](/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg)   This section **needs additional citations for [verification](/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability "Wikipedia:Verifiability")**. Please help [improve this article](//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit) by [adding citations to reliable sources](/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1 "Help:Introduction to referencing/1"). Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. *(December 2012)*
  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Tziganes_aux_Saintes-Maries_de_la_Mer.jpg/290px-Tziganes_aux_Saintes-Maries_de_la_Mer.jpg)](/wiki/File:Tziganes_aux_Saintes-Maries_de_la_Mer.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Tziganes_aux_Saintes-Maries_de_la_Mer.jpg "Enlarge")

Christian Romanies during the pilgrimage at
[Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer](/wiki/Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer "Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer")
in France, 1980s

#### Beliefs[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=22 "Edit section: Beliefs")]

The ancestors of modern day Romani people were previously
[Hindu](/wiki/Hindu "Hindu"), but adopted
[Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") or
[Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") depending on their respective regions they
had migrated through.^[[128]](#cite_note-128)^ [Muslim
Roma](/wiki/Muslim_Roma "Muslim Roma") are found in
[Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), [Bosnia and
Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina"),
[Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"),
[Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo "Kosovo"), [Republic of
Macedonia](/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia "Republic of Macedonia"),
[Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria") and form a very significant
proportion of the Romani people.

#### Deities and saints[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=23 "Edit section: Deities and saints")]

[Blessed Ceferino Giménez
Malla](/wiki/Ceferino_Gim%C3%A9nez_Malla "Ceferino Giménez Malla") is
considered a patron saint of the Romani people in Roman
Catholicism.^[[129]](#cite_note-129)^ [Saint
Sarah](/wiki/Saint_Sarah "Saint Sarah"), or Kali Sara, has also been
venerated as a patron saint in the same manner as the Blessed Ceferino
Giménez Malla, but a transition has occurred in the 21st century,
whereby [Kali](/wiki/Kali "Kali") Sara is understood as an Indian deity
brought from India by the refugee ancestors of the Roma people, thereby
removing any Christian association. Mother Goddess figurines have been
found in the excavations of the Indus Valley Civilisation in Mohenjo
Daro and Harappa, in the Sindh - Punjab - Haryana area [Some Romani
claim Punjab to be their original habitat], and Kali Mata [Mother Kali]
is still worshipped in India particularly by the Hindus. Therefore,
Saint Sarah is now progressively being considered as "a Romani Goddess,
the Protectress of the Roma" and an "indisputable link with Mother
India".^[[90]](#cite_note-radoc.net-90)^^[[130]](#cite_note-130)^

#### Ceremonies and practices[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=24 "Edit section: Ceremonies and practices")]

Romanies often adopt the dominant religion of their host country in the
event that a ceremony associated with a formal religious institution is
necessary, such as a baptism or funeral (their particular belief systems
and indigenous religion and worship remain preserved regardless of such
adoption processes). The Roma continue to practice
"[Shaktism](/wiki/Shaktism "Shaktism")", a practice with origins in
India, whereby a female consort is required for the worship of a god.
Adherence to this practice means that for the Roma who worship a
Christian God, prayer is conducted through the [Virgin
Mary](/wiki/Virgin_Mary "Virgin Mary"), or her mother, [Saint
Anne](/wiki/Saint_Anne "Saint Anne")—Shaktism continues over one
thousand years after the people's separation from
India.^[[131]](#cite_note-Cac-131)^

Besides the Roma elders, who serve as spiritual leaders, priests,
churches, or bibles do not exist among the Romanies—the only exception
is the Pentecostal Roma.^[[131]](#cite_note-Cac-131)^

#### Balkans[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=25 "Edit section: Balkans")]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Studio_Shot_of_European_in_Gypsy_Costume_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs.jpg/220px-Brooklyn_Museum_-_Studio_Shot_of_European_in_Gypsy_Costume_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs.jpg)](/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Studio_Shot_of_European_in_Gypsy_Costume_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Studio_Shot_of_European_in_Gypsy_Costume_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs.jpg "Enlarge")

Costume of a Romani woman (most likely [Muslim
Roma](/wiki/Muslim_Roma "Muslim Roma")).

For the Roma communities that have resided in the Balkans for numerous
centuries, often referred to as "Turkish Gypsies", the following
histories apply for religious beliefs:

-   Bulgaria

In northwestern Bulgaria, in addition to Sofia and Kyustendil, Islam is
the dominant faith among Romani people; however in the independent
Bulgarian state, a major conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity
among Romani people has occurred. In southwestern Bulgaria (Pirin
Macedonia), Islam is also the dominant religion among Romani people,
with a smaller section of the Romani population, declaring themselves as
“Turks”, continuing to mix ethnicity with
Islam.^[[132]](#cite_note-Roma-132)^

-   Romania

According to the [2002
census](/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Romania "Demographic history of Romania"),
the majority of Romani minority living in Romania are [Orthodox
Christians](/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church "Romanian Orthodox Church"),
while 6.4% are
[Pentecostals](/wiki/Pentecostal_Union_of_Romania "Pentecostal Union of Romania"),
3.8% [Roman
Catholics](/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_Romania "Roman Catholicism in Romania"),
3%
[Reformed](/wiki/Reformed_Church_in_Romania "Reformed Church in Romania"),
1.1% [Greek
Catholics](/wiki/Romanian_Church_United_with_Rome,_Greek-Catholic "Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic"),
0.9%
[Baptists](/wiki/Baptist_Union_of_Romania "Baptist Union of Romania"),
0.8% [Seventh-Day
Adventists](/wiki/Romanian_Union_Conference_of_Seventh-day_Adventists "Romanian Union Conference of Seventh-day Adventists").^[[133]](#cite_note-133)^
In [Dobruja](/wiki/Dobruja "Dobruja"), there is a small community that
are [Muslim](/wiki/Islam_in_Romania "Islam in Romania") and also speak
Turkish.^[[132]](#cite_note-Roma-132)^

-   Greece

The descendants of groups, such as Sepečides or Sevljara, Kalpazaja,
Filipidži and others, living in Athens, Thessaloniki, central Greece and
Aegean Macedonia are mostly Orthodox Christians, with Islamic beliefs
held by a minority of the population. Following the Peace Treaty of
Lausanne of 1923, many Muslim Roma moved to Turkey in the subsequent
population exchange between Turkey and
Greece.^[[132]](#cite_note-Roma-132)^

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Bosnian_Gypsies.jpg/180px-Bosnian_Gypsies.jpg)](/wiki/File:Bosnian_Gypsies.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Bosnian_Gypsies.jpg "Enlarge")

Muslim Romanies in [Bosnia and
Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina")
(around 1900)

-   Albania

The majority of Albania's Roma people are
Muslims.^[[134]](#cite_note-134)^

-   Macedonia

The majority of Roma people are followers of
[Islam](/wiki/Islam_in_Macedonia "Islam in Macedonia").^[[132]](#cite_note-Roma-132)^

-   Serbia

Most Roma people in Serbia are Orthodox Christian, but there are some
Muslim Roma in Southern Serbia, mainly refugees from Kosovo.

-   Kosovo

The vast majority of the Roma population in what has become Kosovo is
Muslim.^[[132]](#cite_note-Roma-132)^

-   Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro

Islam is the dominant religion amongst the
Roma.^[[132]](#cite_note-Roma-132)^

-   Croatia

Following the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), a
large number of Muslim Roma relocated to Croatia (the majority moving
from Kosovo).^[[132]](#cite_note-Roma-132)^

#### Other regions[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=26 "Edit section: Other regions")]

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Weingarten_Fastnacht_1910_Zigeuner.jpg/220px-Weingarten_Fastnacht_1910_Zigeuner.jpg)](/wiki/File:Weingarten_Fastnacht_1910_Zigeuner.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Weingarten_Fastnacht_1910_Zigeuner.jpg "Enlarge")

Gypsys in Germany, 1910

In Ukraine and Russia the Roma populations are also Muslim as the
families of Balkan migrants continue to live in these locations. Their
ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th
centuries, but then migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the
Povolzhie (along the Volga River). Formally, Islam is the religion that
these communities align themselves with and the people are recognized
for their [staunch](//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/staunch "wikt:staunch")
preservation of the Romani language and
identity.^[[132]](#cite_note-Roma-132)^

Most Eastern European Romanies are [Roman
Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholicism "Roman Catholicism"), [Eastern
Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church"), or
[Muslim](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim").^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
Those in Western Europe and the [United
States](/wiki/Roma_in_the_United_States "Roma in the United States") are
mostly Roman Catholic or [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant")—in
southern Spain, many Romanies are
[Pentecostal](/wiki/Pentecostalism "Pentecostalism"), but this is a
small minority that has emerged in contemporary
times.^[[131]](#cite_note-Cac-131)^ In Egypt, the Romanies are split
into Christian and Muslim
populations.^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^

### Music[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=27 "Edit section: Music")]

Main article: [Romani music](/wiki/Romani_music "Romani music")

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Romungro.jpg/180px-Romungro.jpg)](/wiki/File:Romungro.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Romungro.jpg "Enlarge")

Young Hungarian Romani performing a traditional dance

Romani music plays an important role in Central and Eastern European
countries such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro,
Bulgaria, the [Republic of
Macedonia](/wiki/Macedonia_(country) "Macedonia (country)"), Albania,
Hungary, Slovenia and Romania, and the style and performance practices
of Romani musicians have influenced European [classical
composers](/wiki/List_of_classical_music_composers "List of classical music composers")
such as [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt") and [Johannes
Brahms](/wiki/Johannes_Brahms "Johannes Brahms"). The
*[lăutari](/wiki/L%C4%83utari "Lăutari")* who perform at traditional
Romanian weddings are virtually all Romani.

Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in
the *lăutari* tradition are [Taraful
Haiducilor](/wiki/Taraful_Haiducilor "Taraful Haiducilor"). Bulgaria's
popular "wedding music", too, is almost exclusively performed by Romani
musicians such as [Ivo Papasov](/wiki/Ivo_Papasov "Ivo Papasov"), a
virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this genre and Bulgarian
pop-folk singer [Azis](/wiki/Azis "Azis").

Many famous classical musicians, such as the Hungarian pianist [Georges
Cziffra](/wiki/Georges_Cziffra "Georges Cziffra"), are Romani, as are
many prominent performers of [manele](/wiki/Manele "Manele"). [Zdob şi
Zdub](/wiki/Zdob_%C5%9Fi_Zdub "Zdob şi Zdub"), one of the most prominent
rock bands in [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova "Moldova"), although not Romanies
themselves, draw heavily on Romani music, as do [Spitalul de
Urgenţă](/wiki/Spitalul_de_Urgen%C5%A3%C4%83 "Spitalul de Urgenţă") in
Romania, [Shantel](/wiki/Shantel "Shantel") in Germany, [Goran
Bregović](/wiki/Goran_Bregovi%C4%87 "Goran Bregović") in Serbia, [Darko
Rundek](/wiki/Darko_Rundek "Darko Rundek") in Croatia,
[Beirut](/wiki/Beirut_(band) "Beirut (band)") and [Gogol
Bordello](/wiki/Gogol_Bordello "Gogol Bordello") in the United States.

Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani [brass
band](/wiki/Brass_band "Brass band"), with such notable practitioners as
[Boban Marković](/wiki/Boban_Markovi%C4%87 "Boban Marković") of Serbia,
and the brass *lăutari* groups [Fanfare
Ciocărlia](/wiki/Fanfare_Cioc%C4%83rlia "Fanfare Ciocărlia") and
[Fanfare din
Cozmesti](/w/index.php?title=Fanfare_din_Cozmesti&action=edit&redlink=1 "Fanfare din Cozmesti (page does not exist)")
of Romania.

Many musical instruments like violins and guitars are said to have
originated from the Romani. Many dances such as the flamenco of Spain
and Oriental dances of Egypt are also said to have originated from them.

The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced
[bolero](/wiki/Bolero "Bolero"), [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz"), and
[flamenco](/wiki/Flamenco "Flamenco") (especially *[cante
jondo](/wiki/Cante_jondo "Cante jondo")*) in Europe. European-style
[gypsy jazz](/wiki/Gypsy_jazz "Gypsy jazz") ("jazz Manouche" or "Sinti
jazz") is still widely practiced among the original creators (the
Romanie People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist
[Django Reinhardt](/wiki/Django_Reinhardt "Django Reinhardt").
Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include
[Stochelo Rosenberg](/wiki/Stochelo_Rosenberg "Stochelo Rosenberg"),
[Biréli Lagrène](/wiki/Bir%C3%A9li_Lagr%C3%A8ne "Biréli Lagrène"),
[Jimmy Rosenberg](/wiki/Jimmy_Rosenberg "Jimmy Rosenberg"), [Paulus
Schäfer](/wiki/Paulus_Sch%C3%A4fer "Paulus Schäfer") and [Tchavolo
Schmitt](/wiki/Tchavolo_Schmitt "Tchavolo Schmitt").

The Romanies of Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from national and
local audiences. Local performers usually perform for special holidays.
Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the
[darbuka](/wiki/Goblet_drum "Goblet drum"),
[gırnata](/wiki/Clarinet "Clarinet") and
[cümbüş](/wiki/C%C3%BCmb%C3%BC%C5%9F "Cümbüş").^[[135]](#cite_note-family-135)^

Contemporary art and culture[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=28 "Edit section: Contemporary art and culture")]
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Main article: [Romani contemporary
art](/wiki/Romani_contemporary_art "Romani contemporary art")

Language[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=29 "Edit section: Language")]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Main article: [Romani language](/wiki/Romani_language "Romani language")

Most Romani speak one of several dialects of the [Romani
language](/wiki/Romani_language "Romani language"),^[[136]](#cite_note-136)^^[*[not\\ in\\ citation\\ given](/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability "Wikipedia:Verifiability")*]^
an [Indo-Aryan](/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages "Indo-Aryan languages")
language, with roots in Sanskrit. They also will often speak the
languages of the countries they live in. Typically, they also
incorporate [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword "Loanword") and
[calques](/wiki/Calque "Calque") into Romani from the languages of those
countries, especially words for terms that the Romani language does not
have. Most of the *Ciganos* of Portugal, the
[Gitanos](/wiki/Gitanos "Gitanos") of Spain, the
[Romanichal](/wiki/Romanichal "Romanichal") of the UK, and [Scandinavian
Travellers](/wiki/Norwegian_and_Swedish_Travellers "Norwegian and Swedish Travellers")
have lost their knowledge of pure Romani, and respectively speak the
[mixed languages](/wiki/Mixed_language "Mixed language")
[Caló](/wiki/Cal%C3%B3_(Spanish_Romani) "Caló (Spanish Romani)"),^[[137]](#cite_note-137)^
[Angloromany](/wiki/Angloromany "Angloromany"), and
[Scandoromani](/wiki/Scandoromani "Scandoromani").

Persecutions[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=30 "Edit section: Persecutions")]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Main article: [Antiziganism](/wiki/Antiziganism "Antiziganism")

### Historical persecution[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=31 "Edit section: Historical persecution")]

One of the most enduring persecutions against the Romani people was the
enslaving of the Romanies. Slavery existed on the territory of
present-day Romania from before the founding of the principalities of
[Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia "Moldavia") and
[Wallachia](/wiki/Wallachia "Wallachia") in 13th–14th century, until it
was [abolished](/wiki/Abolitionism "Abolitionism") in stages during the
1840s and 1850s.^[[138]](#cite_note-Achim-138)^ Legislation decreed that
all the Romanies living in these states, as well as any others who would
immigrate there, were slaves.^[[139]](#cite_note-139)^ Most of the
slaves were of
[Roma](/wiki/Roma_minority_in_Romania "Roma minority in Romania")
(Gypsy) ethnicity.

The exact origins of
[slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania "Slavery in Romania") in the
[Danubian
Principalities](/wiki/Danubian_Principalities "Danubian Principalities")
are not known. There is some debate over whether the Romani people came
to Wallachia and Moldavia as free men or as slaves. Historian [Nicolae
Iorga](/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga "Nicolae Iorga") associated the Roma people's
arrival with the 1241 [Mongol invasion of
Europe](/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe "Mongol invasion of Europe") and
considered their slavery as a vestige of that era, the
[Romanians](/wiki/Romanians "Romanians") taking the Roma from the
[Mongols](/wiki/Mongols "Mongols") as slaves and preserving their
status. Other historians consider that they were enslaved while captured
during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners
may also have been taken from the
Mongols.^[[138]](#cite_note-Achim-138)^ While it is possible that some
Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars,
the bulk of them came from south of the [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube")
at the end of the 14th century, some time after the [foundation of
Wallachia](/wiki/Foundation_of_Wallachia "Foundation of Wallachia"). By
then, the institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia and
possibly in both principalities, but the arrival of the Roma made
slavery a widespread practice. The [Tatar](/wiki/Tatars "Tatars")
slaves, smaller in numbers, were eventually merged into the Roma
population.^[[140]](#cite_note-140)^

The arrival of some branches of the Romani people in Western Europe in
the 15th century was precipitated by the
[Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") conquest of the
Balkans. Although the Romanies themselves were refugees from the
conflicts in southeastern Europe, they were mistaken by the local
population in the West, because of their foreign appearance, as part of
the [Ottoman
invasion](/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe "Ottoman wars in Europe") (the
[German
Reichstags](/wiki/Reichstag_(Holy_Roman_Empire)#The_Reichstag_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire "Reichstag (Holy Roman Empire)")
at Landau and Freiburg in 1496-1498 declared the Romanies as spies of
the Turks). In Western Europe, this resulted in a violent history of
persecution and attempts of ethnic cleansing until the modern era. As
time passed, other accusations were added against local Romanies
(accusations specific to this area, against non-assimilated minorities),
like that of bringing the plague, usually sharing their burden together
with the local
[Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews").^[[141]](#cite_note-timeline-141)^

One example of official persecution of the Romani is exemplified by
[*The Great
Roundup*](/wiki/The_Great_Roundup_of_Gypsies_(1749) "The Great Roundup of Gypsies (1749)")
of [Spanish
Romanies](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Spain "Romani people in Spain")
(Gitanos) in 1749. The Spanish monarchy ordered a nationwide raid that
led to separation of families and placement of all able-bodied men into
forced labor camps.

Later in the 19th century, Romani immigration was forbidden on a racial
basis in areas outside Europe, mostly in the English-speaking world (in
1885 the United States outlawed the entry of the Roma) and also in some
South American countries (in 1880 Argentina adopted a similar
policy).^[[141]](#cite_note-timeline-141)^

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-48%2C_Asperg%2C_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg/260px-Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-48%2C_Asperg%2C_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg)](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-48,_Asperg,_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_R_165_Bild-244-48,_Asperg,_Deportation_von_Sinti_und_Roma.jpg "Enlarge")

Deportation of Roma from [Asperg](/wiki/Asperg "Asperg"), Germany, 1940
(photograph by the *[Rassenhygienische
Forschungsstelle](/w/index.php?title=Rassenhygienische_Forschungsstelle&action=edit&redlink=1 "Rassenhygienische Forschungsstelle (page does not exist)")*)

### Holocaust[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=32 "Edit section: Holocaust")]

Main article: [Porajmos](/wiki/Porajmos "Porajmos")

The persecution of the Romanies reached a peak during World War II in
the *Porajmos*, the genocide perpetrated by the
[Nazis](/wiki/Nazis "Nazis") during the
[Holocaust](/wiki/Holocaust "Holocaust"). In 1935, the [Nuremberg
laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_laws "Nuremberg laws") stripped the Romani people
living in [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") of their
citizenship, after which they were subjected to violence, imprisonment
in [concentration camps](/wiki/Concentration_camp "Concentration camp")
and later genocide in [extermination
camps](/wiki/Extermination_camp "Extermination camp"). The policy was
extended in areas occupied by the Nazis during the war, and it was also
applied by their allies, notably the Independent State of Croatia,
Romania and Hungary.

Because no accurate pre-war census figures exist for the Romanis, it is
impossible to accurately assess the actual number of victims. [Ian
Hancock](/wiki/Ian_Hancock "Ian Hancock"), director of the Program of
Romani Studies at the [University of Texas at
Austin](/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin "University of Texas at Austin"),
proposes a figure of up to a million and a half, while an estimate of
between 220,000 and 500,000 was made by Sybil Milton, formerly senior
historian of the U.S. Holocaust Memorial
Museum.^[[142]](#cite_note-142)^ In Central Europe, the extermination in
the [Protectorate of Bohemia and
Moravia](/wiki/Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia "Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia")
was so thorough that the [Bohemian
Romani](/wiki/Bohemian_Romani "Bohemian Romani") language became
extinct.

### Forced assimilation[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=33 "Edit section: Forced assimilation")]

In the [Habsburg Monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_Monarchy "Habsburg Monarchy")
under [Maria
Theresa](/wiki/Maria_Theresa_of_Austria "Maria Theresa of Austria")
(1740–1780), a series of decrees tried to force the Romanies to
[permanently settle](/wiki/Sedentism "Sedentism"), removed rights to
horse and wagon ownership (1754), renamed them as "New Citizens" and
forced Romani boys into military service if they had no trade (1761),
forced them to register with the local authorities (1767), and
prohibited marriage between Romanies (1773). Her successor [Josef
II](/wiki/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor")
prohibited the wearing of traditional Romani clothing and the use of the
Romani language, punishable by flogging.^[[143]](#cite_note-samer-143)^

In [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"), attempts to assimilate the Gitanos were
under way as early as 1619, when Gitanos were forcibly settled, the use
of the Romani language was prohibited, Gitano men and women were sent to
separate workhouses and their children sent to orphanages. Similar
prohibitions took place in 1783 under [King Charles
III](/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain "Charles III of Spain"), who prohibited
the nomadic lifestyle, the use of the [Calo
language](/wiki/Cal%C3%B3_(Spanish_Romani) "Caló (Spanish Romani)"),
Romani clothing, their trade in horses and other itinerant trades. The
use of the word *gitano* was also forbidden to further assimilation.
Ultimately these measures failed, as the rest of the population rejected
the integration of the
Gitanos.^[[143]](#cite_note-samer-143)^^[[144]](#cite_note-144)^

Other examples of forced assimilation include
[Norway](/wiki/Norway "Norway"), where a law was passed in 1896
permitting the state to remove children from their parents and place
them in state institutions.^[[145]](#cite_note-145)^ This resulted in
some 1,500 Romani children being taken from their parents in the 20th
century.^[[146]](#cite_note-146)^

Contemporary issues[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=34 "Edit section: Contemporary issues")]
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Roma estimate percentage of population in European
countries^[[147]](#cite_note-Roma-in-Europe-147)^

**Country**

**Percent**

[Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria")

  

10.33%

[Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia")

  

9.17%

[Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania")

  

8.32%

[Serbia](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia")

  

8.18%

[Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary")

  

7.05%

[Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey")

  

3.83%

[Albania](/wiki/Albania "Albania")

  

3.18%

[Montenegro](/wiki/Montenegro "Montenegro")

  

2.95%

[Moldova](/wiki/Moldova "Moldova")

  

2.49%

[Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece")

  

2.47%

[Czech Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic")

  

1.96%

[Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain")

  

1.62%

[Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo "Kosovo")

  

1.47%

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Romani_population_average_estimate.png/260px-Romani_population_average_estimate.png)](/wiki/File:Romani_population_average_estimate.png)

[](/wiki/File:Romani_population_average_estimate.png "Enlarge")

Distribution of the Romani people in Europe (2007 [Council of
Europe](/wiki/Council_of_Europe "Council of Europe") "average
estimates", totalling 9.8 million)^[[148]](#cite_note-148)^

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Roma_settlement_at_Letanovsk%C3%BD_Mlyn.jpg/260px-Roma_settlement_at_Letanovsk%C3%BD_Mlyn.jpg)](/wiki/File:Roma_settlement_at_Letanovsk%C3%BD_Mlyn.jpg)

[](/wiki/File:Roma_settlement_at_Letanovsk%C3%BD_Mlyn.jpg "Enlarge")

The [Romani
settlement](/wiki/List_of_Romani_settlements "List of Romani settlements")
at Letanovský Mlyn, Slovakia

Main article: [Modern
Antiziganism](/wiki/Modern_Antiziganism "Modern Antiziganism")

Discrimination against the Romani people has continued to the present
day,^[[149]](#cite_note-149)^^[[150]](#cite_note-150)^ although efforts
are being made to address them.^[[151]](#cite_note-151)^ [Amnesty
International](/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International")
reports continued instances of
[Antizigan](/wiki/Antiziganism "Antiziganism") discrimination during the
20th Century, particularly in Romania, Serbia,^[[152]](#cite_note-152)^
[Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia"),^[[153]](#cite_note-153)^
[Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary"),^[[154]](#cite_note-154)^
[Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia "Slovenia"),^[[155]](#cite_note-155)^ and
[Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo "Kosovo").^[[156]](#cite_note-156)^ The European
Union has recognized that the discrimination the Romani people face
needs to be addressed and with the national Roma integration strategy
they are encouraging member states to work towards greater Romani
inclusion and upholding the [rights of the Romani in the European
union](/wiki/Rights_of_the_Roma_in_the_European_Union "Rights of the Roma in the European Union").^[[157]](#cite_note-157)^

The Romanis of Kosovo have been severely persecuted by ethnic Albanians
since the end of the [Kosovo War](/wiki/Kosovo_War "Kosovo War"), and
the region's Romani community is regarded to be for the most part
annihilated.^[[158]](#cite_note-158)^

Czechoslovakia carried out a policy of sterilization of Romani women,
starting in 1973.^[[159]](#cite_note-159)^ The dissidents of the
[Charter 77](/wiki/Charter_77 "Charter 77") denounced it in 1977-78 as a
[genocide](/wiki/Genocide "Genocide"), but the practice continued
through the [Velvet
Revolution](/wiki/Velvet_Revolution "Velvet Revolution") of
1989.^[[160]](#cite_note-160)^ A 2005 report by the Czech government's
independent ombudsman, Otakar Motejl, identified dozens of cases of
coercive sterilization between 1979 and 2001, and called for criminal
investigations and possible prosecution against several health care
workers and administrators.^[[161]](#cite_note-161)^

In 2008, following the brutal rape and subsequent murder of an Italian
woman in Rome at the hands of a young man from a local Romani
encampment,^[[162]](#cite_note-162)^ the Italian government declared
that Italy's Romani population represented a national security risk and
that swift action was required to address the *emergenza nomadi* (*nomad
emergency*).^[[163]](#cite_note-163)^ Specifically, officials in the
Italian government accused the Romanies of being responsible for rising
crime rates in urban areas. One police raid in 2007 freed many of the
children belonging to a Romani gang who used to steal by day, and who
were locked in a shed by night by members of the
gang.^[[164]](#cite_note-164)^

The 2008 [deaths of Cristina and Violetta
Djeordsevic](/wiki/Death_of_Cristina_and_Violetta_Djeordsevic "Death of Cristina and Violetta Djeordsevic"),
two Roma children who drowned while Italian beach-goers remained
unperturbed, brought international attention to the relationship between
Italians and the Roma people. Reviewing the state of play in 2012, one
Belgian magazine observed:

> On International Roma Day, which falls on 8 April, the significant
> proportion of Europe's 12 million Roma who live in deplorable
> conditions will not have much to celebrate. And poverty is not the
> only worry for the community. Ethnic tensions are on the rise. In
> 2008, Roma camps came under attack in Italy, intimidation by racist
> parliamentarians is the norm in Hungary. Speaking in 1993, [Václav
> Havel](/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel "Václav Havel") prophetically remarked
> that "the treatment of the Roma is a litmus test for democracy": and
> democracy has been found wanting. The consequences of the transition
> to capitalism have been disastrous for the Roma. Under communism they
> had jobs, free housing and schooling. Now many are unemployed, many
> are losing their homes and racism is increasingly rewarded with
> impunity.^[[165]](#cite_note-MO_2012-165)^

### Forced repatriation[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=35 "Edit section: Forced repatriation")]

Main article: [French Romani
repatriation](/wiki/French_Romani_repatriation "French Romani repatriation")

In the summer of 2010 French authorities demolished at least 51 illegal
Roma camps and began the [process of
repatriating](/wiki/French_Romani_repatriation "French Romani repatriation")
their residents to their countries of origin.^[[166]](#cite_note-166)^
This followed tensions between the French state and Roma communities,
which had been heightened after French police opened fire and killed a
traveller who drove through a police checkpoint, hitting an officer, and
attempted to hit two more officers at another checkpoint. In retaliation
a group of Roma, armed with hatchets and iron bars, attacked the police
station of Saint-Aignan, toppled traffic lights and road signs and
burned three cars.^[[167]](#cite_note-167)^^[[168]](#cite_note-168)^ The
French government has been accused of perpetrating these actions to
pursue its political agenda.^[[169]](#cite_note-169)^ EU Justice
Commissioner [Viviane Reding](/wiki/Viviane_Reding "Viviane Reding")
stated that the [European
Commission](/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission") should take
legal action against France over the issue, calling the deportations "a
disgrace". Purportedly, a leaked file dated 5 August, sent from the
[Interior
Ministry](/wiki/Minister_of_the_Interior_(France) "Minister of the Interior (France)")
to regional police chiefs included the instruction: "Three hundred camps
or illegal settlements must be cleared within three months, Roma camps
are a priority."^[[170]](#cite_note-170)^

Fictional representations[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=36 "Edit section: Fictional representations")]
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Vincent_van_Gogh-_The_Caravans_-_Gypsy_Camp_near_Arles.JPG/260px-Vincent_van_Gogh-_The_Caravans_-_Gypsy_Camp_near_Arles.JPG)](/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh-_The_Caravans_-_Gypsy_Camp_near_Arles.JPG)

[](/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh-_The_Caravans_-_Gypsy_Camp_near_Arles.JPG "Enlarge")

[Vincent van Gogh](/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh "Vincent van Gogh"): *The
Caravans – Gypsy Camp near Arles* (1888, oil on canvas)

Main article: [Fictional representations of Romani
people](/wiki/Fictional_representations_of_Romani_people "Fictional representations of Romani people")

Many fictional depictions of Romani people in literature and art present
romanticized narratives of their supposed mystical powers of [fortune
telling](/wiki/Fortune_telling "Fortune telling") or their supposed
irascible or passionate temper paired with an indomitable love of
freedom and a habit of criminality. Particularly notable are classics
like the story *[Carmen](/wiki/Carmen_(novella) "Carmen (novella)")* by
[Prosper Mérimée](/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e "Prosper Mérimée") and
the [opera based on it](/wiki/Carmen "Carmen") by [Georges
Bizet](/wiki/Georges_Bizet "Georges Bizet"), [Victor
Hugo](/wiki/Victor_Hugo "Victor Hugo")'s *[The Hunchback of Notre
Dame](/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre_Dame "The Hunchback of Notre Dame")*,
[Herge](/wiki/Herge "Herge")'s *[The Castafiore
Emerald](/wiki/The_Castafiore_Emerald "The Castafiore Emerald")* and
[Miguel de Cervantes](/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes "Miguel de Cervantes")'
*La Gitanilla*.

The Romani were also heavily romanticized in the [Soviet
Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), a classic example being the
1975 *[Tabor ukhodit v
Nebo](/wiki/Queen_of_the_Gypsies "Queen of the Gypsies")*. A more
realistic depiction of contemporary [Romani in the
Balkans](/wiki/Romani_in_the_Balkans "Romani in the Balkans"), featuring
Romani lay actors speaking in their native dialects, although still
playing with established clichés of a Romani penchant for both magic and
crime, was presented by [Emir
Kusturica](/wiki/Emir_Kusturica "Emir Kusturica") in his *[Time of the
Gypsies](/wiki/Time_of_the_Gypsies "Time of the Gypsies")* (1988) and
*[Black Cat, White
Cat](/wiki/Black_Cat,_White_Cat "Black Cat, White Cat")* (1998). The
films of [Tony Gatlif](/wiki/Tony_Gatlif "Tony Gatlif"), a French
director of Romani ethnicity, like *Les Princes* (1983), *[Latcho
Drom](/wiki/Latcho_Drom "Latcho Drom")* (1993) and *[Gadjo
Dilo](/w/index.php?title=Gadjo_Dilo&action=edit&redlink=1 "Gadjo Dilo (page does not exist)")*
(1997) also portray gypsy life.

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Carmen_%28Biblioth%C3%A8que-Mus%C3%A9e_de_lOp%C3%A9ra%29_%284568143185%29.jpg/119px-Carmen_%28Biblioth%C3%A8que-Mus%C3%A9e_de_lOp%C3%A9ra%29_%284568143185%29.jpg)](/wiki/File:Carmen_(Biblioth%C3%A8que-Mus%C3%A9e_de_lOp%C3%A9ra)_(4568143185).jpg)

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/La_Esmeralda_from_Victor_Hugo_and_His_Time.jpg/105px-La_Esmeralda_from_Victor_Hugo_and_His_Time.jpg)](/wiki/File:La_Esmeralda_from_Victor_Hugo_and_His_Time.jpg)

[![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/bd/Time_of_the_Gypsies.jpg/124px-Time_of_the_Gypsies.jpg)](/wiki/File:Time_of_the_Gypsies.jpg)

[Carmen](/wiki/Carmen_(novella) "Carmen (novella)"),
[Esmeralda](/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre_Dame "The Hunchback of Notre Dame")
and [Time of the
Gypsies](/wiki/Time_of_the_Gypsies "Time of the Gypsies")

### In contemporary literature[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=37 "Edit section: In contemporary literature")]

The Romani ethnicity is often used for characters in contemporary
fantasy literature. In such literature, the Romani are often portrayed
as possessing archaic occult knowledge passed down through the ages.
This frequent use of the ethnicity has given rise to 'gypsy archetypes'
in popular contemporary
literature.^[*[citation\\ needed](/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")*]^
A UK example is the Freya Trilogy by [Elizabeth
Arnold](/wiki/Elizabeth_Arnold_(children%27s_writer) "Elizabeth Arnold (children's writer)").

See also[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=38 "Edit section: See also")]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
  [![Portal icon](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_the_Romani_people.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Romani_people.svg.png)](/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Romani_people.svg)   [Romani people portal](/wiki/Portal:Romani_people "Portal:Romani people")
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
| -   [Antiziganism] | -   [Rajasthani    | General            | Lists              |
| (/wiki/Antiziganis |     people](/wiki/ | -   [Nomadic       | -   [List of       |
| m "Antiziganism")  | Rajasthani_people  |     peoples of     |     Romani         |
| -   [Balkan        | "Rajasthani people |     Europe](/wiki/ |     groups](/wiki/ |
|     Egyptians and  | ")                 | Nomadic_peoples_of | List_of_Romani_gro |
|     the            | -   [Romani people | _Europe "Nomadic p | ups "List of Roman |
|     Ashkali](/wiki |     by             | eoples of Europe") | i groups")         |
| /Balkan_Egyptians  |     country](/wiki | -   [Nomadic       | -   [List of       |
| "Balkan Egyptians" | /Romani_people_by_ |     tribes in      |     Romani         |
| )                  | country "Romani pe |     India](/wiki/N |     people](/wiki/ |
|                    | ople by country")  | omadic_tribes_in_I | List_of_Romani_peo |
| -   [Dom           | -   [Timeline of   | ndia "Nomadic trib | ple "List of Roman |
|     people](/wiki/ |     Romani         | es in India")      | i people")         |
| Dom_people "Dom pe |     history](/wiki |                    | -   [List of       |
| ople")             | /Timeline_of_Roman | Advocacy           |     Romani         |
| -   [Great Gypsy   | i_history "Timelin | -   [Decade of     |     settlements](/ |
|     Round-up](/wik | e of Romani histor |     Roma           | wiki/List_of_Roman |
| i/Great_Gypsy_Roun | y")                |     Inclusion](/wi | i_settlements "Lis |
| d-up "Great Gypsy  | -   [Origin of the | ki/Decade_of_Roma_ | t of Romani settle |
| Round-up")         |     Romani         | Inclusion "Decade  | ments")            |
| -   [King of the   |     people](/wiki/ | of Roma Inclusion" |                    |
|     Gypsies](/wiki | Origin_of_the_Roma | )                  |                    |
| /King_of_the_Gypsi | ni_people "Origin  | -   [European Roma |                    |
| es "King of the Gy | of the Romani peop |     Rights         |                    |
| psies")            | le")               |     Centre](/wiki/ |                    |
| -   [R. v.         | -   [Zott](/wiki/Z | European_Roma_Righ |                    |
|     Krymowski](/wi | ott "Zott")        | ts_Centre "Europea |                    |
| ki/R._v._Krymowski |                    | n Roma Rights Cent |                    |
|  "R. v. Krymowski" |                    | re")               |                    |
| )                  |                    | -   [Gypsy Lore    |                    |
| -   [List of       |                    |     Society](/wiki |                    |
|     Romani         |                    | /Gypsy_Lore_Societ |                    |
|     people](/wiki/ |                    | y "Gypsy Lore Soci |                    |
| List_of_Romani_peo |                    | ety")              |                    |
| ple "List of Roman |                    | -   [International |                    |
| i people")         |                    |     Romani         |                    |
| -   [Lom           |                    |     Union](/wiki/I |                    |
|     people](/wiki/ |                    | nternational_Roman |                    |
| Lom_people "Lom pe |                    | i_Union "Internati |                    |
| ople")             |                    | onal Romani Union" |                    |
| -   [Lyuli](/wiki/ |                    | )                  |                    |
| Lyuli "Lyuli")     |                    |                    |                    |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

References[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=39 "Edit section: References")]
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Notes

1.  **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-1)**
    ["Rom"](http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/250432/Rom).
    Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-09-15. "According to
    [Encyclopaedia
    Britannica](/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica "Encyclopaedia Britannica"),
    estimates of the total world Romani population range from two
    million to five million." 
2.  **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-2)** ["Online
    version"](http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=rmy).
    Retrieved 2010-09-15. "Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue:
    Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL
    International. [Ian Hancock](/wiki/Ian_Hancock "Ian Hancock")'s 1987
    estimate for "all Gypsies in the world" was 6 to 11 million." 
3.  **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-3)** ["EU demands action to tackle Roma
    poverty"](http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12977975). *BBC
    News*. 2011-04-05. 
4.  \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-time_4-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-time_4-1) Webley, Kayla (October 13, 2010).
    ["Hounded in Europe, Roma in the U.S. Keep a Low
    Profile"](http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2025316,00.html).
    *Time*. "Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at
    about one million." 
5.  **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-5)** The Special Secretariat for the
    Promotion of Racial Equality estimates the number of "ciganos"
    (Romanis) in Brazil at 800,000 (2011). The 2010
    [IBGE](/wiki/Brazilian_Institute_of_Geography_and_Statistics "Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics")
    Brazilian National Census encountered gypsy camps in 291 of Brazil's
    5,565 municipalities.["Falta de políticas públicas para ciganos é
    desafio para o
    governo"](http://noticias.r7.com/brasil/noticias/falta-de-politicas-publicas-para-ciganos-e-desafio-para-o-governo-20110524.html).
    R7. 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-22. 
6.  **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-6)** ["The Situation of Roma in
    Spain"](http://web.archive.org/web/20071201172552/http://www.eumap.org/reports/2002/eu/international/sections/spain/2002_m_spain.pdf)
    (PDF). Open Society Institute. 2002. Archived from [the
    original](http://www.eumap.org/reports/2002/eu/international/sections/spain/2002_m_spain.pdf)
    on 2007-12-01. Retrieved 2010-09-15. "The Spanish government
    estimates the number of *Gitanos* at a maximum of 650,000." 
7.  **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-7)** ["Rezultatele finale ale
    Recensământului din 2011 - Tab8. Populaţia stabilă după etnie –
    judeţe, municipii, oraşe,
    comune"](http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/sR_Tab_8.xls)
    (in Romanian). [National Institute of Statistics
    (Romania)](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Statistics_(Romania) "National Institute of Statistics (Romania)").
    5 July 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2013.  However, various
    organizations claim that there are 2 million Romanis in Romania. See
    [[1]](http://www.gandul.info/news/recensamant-2011-doua-treimi-dintre-romi-se-declara-romani-700-000-2-000-000-3-000-000-cati-romi-traiesc-in-romania-8883047)
8.  **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Turkey_8-0)** ["Roma rights organizations
    work to ease prejudice in
    Turkey"](http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/46ef87ab32.html).
    EurasiaNet. 22 July 2005. Retrieved 2010-09-15. "There are
    officially about 500,000 Roma in Turkey." 
9.  **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-9)** ["Situation of Roma in France at
    crisis
    proportions"](http://www.euractiv.com/en/security/situation-roma-france-crisis-proportions-report/article-150507).
    EurActiv Network. 7 December 2005. Retrieved 2010-09-15. "The Romani
    population in France is officially estimated at around 500,000." 
10. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-10)** ["Population By Districts And Ethnic
    Group As Of 01.03.2001"](http://www.nsi.bg/Census_e/Ethnos.htm).
    05.01.2004. Retrieved 2010-09-15. "Census 2001 in Bulgaria: 370,908
    Roma"  Check date values in:
    `|date=`{style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;"}
    ([help](/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date "Help:CS1 errors"))
11. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-11)** ["Population by national/ethnic
    groups"](http://www.nepszamlalas.hu/eng/volumes/06/00/tabeng/4/load01_11_0.html).
    Hungarian Central Statistical Office. Retrieved 2010-09-15. "Census
    2001 in Hungary: 205,720 Roma/Bea" 
12. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-12)** ["The Romani population in Greece is
    officially estimated at
    200,000"](http://www.nchr.gr/category.php?category_id=99). Hellenic
    Republic National Commission For Human Rights. Retrieved 2010-09-15.
    "Census 2001 in Hungary: 205,720 Roma/Bea" 
13. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-13)** [Census 2001 in
    Slovakia](http://sodb.infostat.sk/scitanie/eng/2001/format.htm)
14. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-14)** ["National Composition Of Population
    And Citizenship"](http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/English/4-1.xls)
    (Excel). perepis2002.ru. Retrieved 2010-09-16. "Census 2002 in
    Russia: 182,766 Roma." 
15. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-15)**
    [http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/WebSite/userFiles/file/Aktuelnosti/Prezentacija\_Knjiga1.pdf](http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/WebSite/userFiles/file/Aktuelnosti/Prezentacija_Knjiga1.pdf)
16. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-16)** [Demographics of
    Italy\#Languages](/wiki/Demographics_of_Italy#Languages "Demographics of Italy")
    Estimated by *Ministero degli Interni del Governo Italiano.*
17. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-17)**
    [[2]](http://www.berlin-institut.org/online-handbuchdemografie/bevoelkerungsdynamik/regionale-dynamik/roma-in-deutschland.html)
    Berlin-Institut für Bevölkerung und Entwicklung: Roma in Deutschland
18. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-18)**
    [[3]](http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=rme)
    Ethnologue.com
19. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-19)** ["The 2002-census reported 53,879
    Roma and 3,843
    'Egyptians'"](http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18).
    Republic of Macedonia, State Statistical Office. Retrieved
    2010-09-17. 
20. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-20)** ["Catemaco
    gypsies"](http://www.catemaco.info/5a/catemaco/hungaros.html).
    Catemaco.info. Retrieved 2013-03-12. 
21. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-21)** [Sametingen. Information about
    minorities in Sweden](http://minoritet.prod3.imcms.net/1013)
    (Swedish)
22. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-22)** [State statistics committee of
    Ukraine - National composition of population, 2001
    census](http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/nationality_population/nationality_popul1/select_5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=100&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20&n_page=5)
    (Ukrainian)
23. \^ [Jump up to:
    ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Gall.2C_Timothy_L._1998_pp._316.2C_318_23-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Gall.2C_Timothy_L._1998_pp._316.2C_318_23-1)
    [^***c***^](#cite_ref-Gall.2C_Timothy_L._1998_pp._316.2C_318_23-2)
    Gall, Timothy L. (ed). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Culture & Daily
    Life: Vol. 4 - Europe. Cleveland, OH: Eastword Publications
    Development (1998); pp. 316, 318 : "Religion: An underlay of
    Hinduism with an overlay of either Christianity or Islam (host
    country religion) "; "Roma religious beliefs are rooted in Hinduism.
    Roma believe in a universal balance, called kuntari... Despite a
    1,000-year separation from India, Roma still practice 'shaktism',
    the worship of a god through his female consort... "
24. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-24)** Hancock, Ian F (2002). [*How Indian
    are Romanies, p.
    XX*](http://books.google.com/?id=MG0ahVw-kdwC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR20#v=onepage&q=Indian&f=false).
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-1-902806-19-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8").
    Retrieved 2014-03-12. "While a nine century' removal from India has
    diluted Indian biological cconnection to the extent that for some
    Romanian groups, it may be hardy representative today, Sarren
    (1976:72) concluded that, we still remain together, genetically, to
    Asian than European around us;" 
25. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-25)** Hancock, Ian F (2002). [*We Are the
    Romani People, p.
    XX*](http://books.google.com/?id=MG0ahVw-kdwC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR20#v=onepage&q&f=false).
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-1-902806-19-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8").
    Retrieved 2008-07-31. "There are Romanies everywhere, even in China
    or Singapore, but by far the greatest number live in Europe and in
    North and South America." 
26. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-kenrick_intro_26-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-kenrick_intro_26-1) Kenrick, Donald (2007).
    *Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies (Romanies)* (2nd ed.).
    Scarecrow Press. p. xxxvii. "The Gypsies, or Romanies, are an ethnic
    group that arrived in Europe around the 14th century. Scholars argue
    about when and how they left India, but it is generally accepted
    that they did emigrate from northern India some time between the 6th
    and 11th centuries, then crossed the Middle East and came into
    Europe." 
27. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-What_is_Domari_27-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-What_is_Domari_27-1) Professor Yaron Matras
    (December 2012).
    ["Domari"](http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/files/21_domari.shtml).
    *[romani] project*. School of Languages, Linguistics and Cultures
    The University of Manchester. Retrieved 26 December 2012. "The two
    were once thought to be ‘sister languages’ which split after leaving
    the Indian subcontinent, but more recent research suggests that the
    differences between them are much older. The Dom and the Rom are
    therefore more likely to be descendents of different migration
    waves, sharing primarily a caste-identity, but not necessarily a
    language. There are however some remarkable similarities between
    Romani and Domari, which appear to suggest a similar history." 
28. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-28)** Corrêa Teixeira, Rodrigo. ["A
    historia dos ciganos no
    Brasil"](http://web.archive.org/web/20110718044951/http://www.dhnet.org.br/direitos/sos/ciganos/a_pdf/teixeira_hist_ciganos_brasil.pdf)
    (PDF). Archived from [the
    original](http://www.dhnet.org.br/direitos/sos/ciganos/a_pdf) on
    July 2011. Retrieved 2012-08-29. 
29. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-29)** Sutherland, Ann, "Gypsies: The Hidden
    Americans", \# Waveland Press (July 1986)\# [ISBN
    0-88133-235-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0881332356), \# [ISBN
    978-0-88133-235-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780881332353)
30. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-30)** Yaron Matras (2002). [*Romani: A
    Linguistic
    Introduction*](http://books.google.com/books?id=D4IIi0Ha3V4C&pg=PA238&dq=number+speakers+of+Romani).
    Cambridge University Press. p. 239.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-0-521-63165-5](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63165-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63165-5").
    Retrieved 2009-07-16. 
31. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-31)**
    ["Romani"](http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/2/Matras_Rmni_ELL.pdf)
    (PDF). *Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics*. Oxford: Elsevier.
    p. 1. Retrieved 2009-08-30. "In some regions of Europe, especially
    the western margins (Britain, the Iberian peninsula, Scandinavia),
    Romani-speaking communities have given up their language in favor of
    the majority language, but have retained Romani-derived vocabulary
    as an in-group code. Such codes, for instance Angloromani (Britain),
    Caló (Spain), or Rommani (Scandinavia) are usually referred to as
    Para-Romani varieties." 
32. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-words_32-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-words_32-1) [^***c***^](#cite_ref-words_32-2)
    [^***d***^](#cite_ref-words_32-3) [Roma, Sinti, Gypsies,
    Travellers...The Correct Terminology about
    Roma](http://www.inotherwords-project.eu/content/project/media-analysis/terminology/terminology-concerning-roma)
    at In Other WORDS project - Web Observatory & Review for
    Discrimination alerts & Stereotypes deconstruction
33. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-We-Are-the-Romani-People-Pg-XIX_33-0)**
    Hancock, Ian F (2002). [*We Are the Romani People, p.
    XIX*](http://books.google.com/?id=MG0ahVw-kdwC&pg=PP1#PPR19,M1).
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-1-902806-19-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8").
    Retrieved 2008-07-31 .
34. \^ [Jump up to:
    ^***a***^](#cite_ref-We-Are-the-Romani-People-Pg-XXI_34-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-We-Are-the-Romani-People-Pg-XXI_34-1) Hancock,
    Ian F (2002). [*We Are the Romani People, p.
    XXI*](http://books.google.com/?id=MG0ahVw-kdwC&pg=PP1#PPR21,M1).
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-1-902806-19-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8").
    Retrieved 2008-07-31 .
35. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-35)** p. 52 in Elena Marushiakova and
    Vesselin Popov's "Historical and ethnographic background; gypsies,
    Roma, Sinti" in Will Guy [ed.] Between Past and Future: The Roma of
    Central and Eastern Europe [with a Foreword by Dr. Ian Hancock],
    2001, UK: University of Hertfordshire Press.
36. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-36)** p. 13 in Illona Klimova-Alexander's
    The Romani Voice in World Politics: The United Nations and Non-State
    Actors (2005, Burlington, VT.: Ashgate).
37. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-37)** Xavier Rothéa. ["Les Roms, une nation
    sans
    territoire?"](http://www.theyliewedie.org/ressources/biblio/fr/Rothea_Xavier_-_Les_roms.html)
    (in French). Retrieved 2008-07-31. 
38. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Garner_38-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Garner_38-1) Bryan A. Garner (2011).
    [*Garner's Dictionary of Legal
    Usage*](http://books.google.com/books?id=YwLiALrHLCEC&pg=PA400).
    Oxford University Press. pp. 400–.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-0-19-538420-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538420-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538420-8"). 
39. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Dictionaryof2002_39-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Dictionaryof2002_39-1) Guido Bolaffi (2003).
    [*Dictionary of Race, Ethnicity and
    Culture*](http://books.google.com/books?id=Tlc5lTCfuXwC&pg=PA291).
    SAGE Publications. pp. 291–.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-0-7619-6900-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-6900-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-6900-6"). 
40. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-40)** O'Nions, Helen (2007). [*Minority
    rights protection in international law: the Roma of
    Europe*](http://books.google.com/?id=lN1Nj_IjUiUC&pg=PA6&dq=%22In+Eastern+Europe+the+term+Rom+is+clearly+preferred%22#v=onepage&q=%22In%20Eastern%20Europe%20the%20term%20Rom%20is%20clearly%20preferred%22&f=false).
    Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 6.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [9781409490920](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781409490920 "Special:BookSources/9781409490920"). 
41. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-We-Are-the-Romani-People-Pg-XX_41-0)**
    Hancock, Ian F (2002). [*We Are the Romani People, p.
    XX*](http://books.google.com/?id=MG0ahVw-kdwC&pg=PP1#PPR20,M1).
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-1-902806-19-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8 "Special:BookSources/978-1-902806-19-8").
    Retrieved 2008-07-31 .
42. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-42)** ["Dom: The Gypsy community in
    Jerusalem"](http://imeu.net/news/article004439.shtml). The Institute
    for Middle East Understanding. February 13, 2007. Retrieved
    2010-09-17. 
43. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-43)** *Douglas Harper* (February 13, 2007).
    ["Etymology of
    Romani"](http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Romany). Online
    Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2010-09-17. 
44. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Soulis_44-0)** Soulis, G. (1961). The
    Gypsies in the Byzantine Empire and the Balkans in the Late Middle
    Ages. *Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Trustees for Harvard University*, 15,
    141-165.
45. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-White_1999_45-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-White_1999_45-1) White, Karin (1999).
    ["Metal-workers, agriculturists, acrobats, military-people and
    fortune-tellers: Roma (Gypsies) in and around the Byzantine
    empire"](http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/goudenhoorn/72karin.html).
    *Golden Horn* **7** (2). Retrieved 2007-08-26. 
46. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Fraser1992_46-0)** Fraser 1992.
47. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-47)** Hancock, Ian (1995). *A Handbook of
    Vlax Romani*. Slavica Publishers. p. 17. 
48. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Thenew2007_48-0)** Terry Victor; Tom
    Dalzell (1 December 2007). [*The Concise New Partridge Dictionary of
    Slang and Unconventional
    English*](http://books.google.com/books?id=GIuEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA314).
    Routledge. pp. 314–.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-1-134-61534-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-61534-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-134-61534-6"). 
49. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-MerriamWebsterpocket1998_49-0)**
    *Merriam-Webster's pocket guide to English usage*. Springfield, MA:
    Merriam-Webster. 1998. p. 178.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [0877795142](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0877795142 "Special:BookSources/0877795142"). 
50. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Garner2009_50-0)** Bryan Garner (28 July
    2009). [*Garner's Modern American
    Usage*](http://books.google.com/books?id=Sd3byNeBdR4C&pg=PT1740).
    Oxford University Press. pp. 1740–.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-0-19-987462-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-987462-0 "Special:BookSources/978-0-19-987462-0"). 
51. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Baskin_51-0)** Baskin, [by] H.E. Wedeck
    with the assistance of Wade. *Dictionary of gypsy life and lore*.
    New York: Philosophical Library.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [0806529857](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0806529857 "Special:BookSources/0806529857"). 
52. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-RomaReport_52-0)** [Report in Roma
    Educational Needs in
    Ireland](http://www.paveepoint.ie/pdf/Roma_Report.pdf)
53. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-53)** [American Heritage Dictionary of the
    English Language, Fourth Edition, definition 1 and
    2](http://www.thefreedictionary.com/dict.asp?Word=gypsy)
54. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-54)** [American Heritage Dictionary of the
    English Language, Fourth Edition, definition 3 and
    4](http://www.thefreedictionary.com/dict.asp?Word=gypsy)
55. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Starr_55-0)** Starr, J. (1936). An Eastern
    Christian Sect: the Athinganoi. *Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Trustees for
    Harvard University*, 29, 93-106.
56. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-56)** Bates, Karina. ["A Brief History of
    the
    Rom"](http://web.archive.org/web/20070810161445/http://www.sca.org/ti/articles/2002/issue144/rom.html).
    Archived from [the
    original](http://www.sca.org/ti/articles/2002/issue144/rom.html) on
    2007-08-10. Retrieved 2007-08-26. 
57. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-57)** ["Book
    Reviews"](http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/9Y2PJM6YAYT1UVHW.pdf)
    (PDF). *Population Studies* **48** (2): 365–372. July 1994.
    [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier "Digital object identifier"):[10.1080/0032472031000147856](http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F0032472031000147856). 
58. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-58)**
    ["gitan"](http://www.academie-francaise.fr/dictionnaire/) (in
    French). [Dictionnaire de l'Académie
    française](/wiki/Dictionnaire_de_l%27Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise "Dictionnaire de l'Académie française").
    Retrieved 2007-08-26. "Nom donné aux bohémiens d'Espagne ; par ext.,
    synonyme de Bohémien, Tzigane. Adjt. Une robe gitane." 
59. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-59)** 3.8 million according to Pan and
    Pfeil, *National Minorities in Europe* (2004), [ISBN
    978-3-7003-1443-1](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783700314431), p. 27f.
60. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-60)** [Council of
    Europe](http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/romatravellers/Documentation/strategies/statistiques_en.asp)
    compilation of population estimates
61. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-61)** Milena, Hübshmanová (2003). ["Roma –
    Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. "The endless and
    countless number of designations which were and still are given to
    individual groups of Roma during the course of their extra-Indian
    history is a result of the Indian archetype of caste
    (kinship-professional) reproduction and, in addition, the movement
    of the Roma to different political and ethno-linguistic milieus of
    Asia, Europe, America and Australia." 
62. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-62)** Horvátová, Jana (2002). [*Kapitoly z
    dějin Romů* [*Chapters from Romani
    history*]](http://www.varianty.cz/cdrom/podkapitoly/d01kapitoly.pdf)
    (in český). Praha: Lidové noviny. p. 12. "Mnohočetnost romských
    skupin je patrně pozůstatkem diferenciace Romů do původních
    indických kast a podkast. / The multitude of Roma groups is
    apparently a relic of Roma differentiation to Indian castes and
    subcastes." 
63. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-63)** Milena, Hübshmanová (2003). ["Roma –
    Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. "A basic, probably the
    most original and in its way all-inclusive autonymum is the ethnic
    name (ethnonymum) Rom." 
64. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-64)** Milena, Hübshmanová (2003). ["Roma –
    Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. "Although today, Roma
    living in various lands around the world use different "autonyma"
    for their societies (Sinti, Kale, Manouche, etc.), all acknowledge a
    common origin and basic identity with Roma. This is mainly so with
    reference to the Rom-Gadžo (non-Rom) dichotomy." 
65. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-jurova_endonyma_65-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-jurova_endonyma_65-1)
    [^***c***^](#cite_ref-jurova_endonyma_65-2)
    [^***d***^](#cite_ref-jurova_endonyma_65-3)
    [^***e***^](#cite_ref-jurova_endonyma_65-4) Jurová, Anna (2003).
    ["From Leaving The Homeland to the First Assimilation
    Measures"](http://www.eurac.it/en/research/institutes/imr/Documents/romaglob_final.pdf).
    In Vaščka, Michal; Jurásková, Martina; Nicholson, Tom. *ČAČIPEN PAL
    O ROMA - A Global Report on Roma in Slovakia* (Slovak Republic:
    Institute for Public Affairs): 17. Retrieved September 7, 2013. "the
    Sinti lived in German territory, the Manusha in France, the
    Romanitsel in England, the Kale in Spain and Portugal, and the Kaale
    in Finland." 
66. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-66)** Milena, Hübshmanová (2003). ["Roma –
    Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. "Kale is an autonymous
    term used by Roma in Finland." 
67. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Milena_2003_67-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Milena_2003_67-1) Milena, Hübshmanová (2003).
    ["Roma – Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. "Spanish and Finnish Cale
    / Kale probably have nothing in common; their identical autonymum is
    a coincidence." 
68. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-rombase_cale_68-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-rombase_cale_68-1) Milena, Hübshmanová (2003).
    ["Roma – Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. "The name Cale
    (pronounced something like "Calley") in itself designates the Roma
    of Spain. (...) this term, which means "black" (...)" 
69. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-69)** Milena, Hübshmanová (2003). ["Roma –
    Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. "The Spanish Cale use the
    term Cale for their language. The Cale language is para-Romani" 
70. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-70)** ["The Legend of the Romani Cymreig /
    Welsh Romani"](http://www.valleystream.co.uk/romany-welsh%20.htm).
    *Romani Cymru - Romany Wales Project*. ValleyStream Media.
    1980–2010. "The Kale, who became the Welsh Gypsies, probably came
    from Spain, through France and landed in Cornwall, eventually making
    their way to Wales." 
71. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-rombase_manush_71-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-rombase_manush_71-1)
    [^***c***^](#cite_ref-rombase_manush_71-2) Milena, Hübshmanová
    (2003). ["Roma – Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. "A sub-group of Sinti are
    the Manouche. They live mainly in France. The etymology of the name
    Manouche is Indian. The term manouche means a human being (in
    Sanskrit, in neo-Indian languages and in Romani)." 
72. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-72)** Jurová, Anna (2003). ["From Leaving
    The Homeland to the First Assimilation
    Measures"](http://www.eurac.it/en/research/institutes/imr/Documents/romaglob_final.pdf).
    In Vaščka, Michal; Jurásková, Martina; Nicholson, Tom. *ČAČIPEN PAL
    O ROMA - A Global Report on Roma in Slovakia* (Slovak Republic:
    Institute for Public Affairs): 17. Retrieved September 7, 2013. "The
    word “manush” is also included in all dialects of Romany. It means
    man, while “Manusha” equals people. This word has the same form and
    meaning in Sanskrit as well, and is almost identical in other Indian
    languages." 
73. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-rombase_sinti_73-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-rombase_sinti_73-1) Milena, Hübshmanová
    (2003). ["Roma – Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. "The autonymum Sinti
    (pl.) (Sinto, m. sing.; Sintica, f. sing.) is used by members of an
    important Roma society, the greatest number of whom live in Germany.
    Hence, one of the exonymous terms for Sinti is "German Gypsies /
    Roma". Although the Sinti do not speak of themselves as Roma, they
    say they speak romanes." 
74. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-74)** Teaching Tolerance. ["Romani
    Diversity | Teaching
    Tolerance"](http://www.tolerance.org/supplement/romani-diversity).
    Tolerance.org. Retrieved 2013-12-10. 
75. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-75)** *Dicţionarul etimologic român* (The
    Etymological Dictionary of the Romanian language), quoted in
    [DEX-online](http://dexonline.ro/definitie/rudar) (see
    [lemma](/wiki/Lemma_(morphology) "Lemma (morphology)") *rudár,
    rudári, s.m.* followed by both definitions: *gold miner" and "wood
    crafter")*
76. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-76)** ["Vlax Romani: Churari (Speech
    variety
    \#16036)"](http://globalrecordings.net/research/dialect/16036).
    Globalrecordings.net. Retrieved 2013-12-10. 
77. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-77)** ["Romani language and
    alphabet"](http://www.omniglot.com/writing/romany.htm).
    Omniglot.com. Retrieved 2013-12-10. 
78. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-rombase_list_78-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-rombase_list_78-1)
    [^***c***^](#cite_ref-rombase_list_78-2)
    [^***d***^](#cite_ref-rombase_list_78-3)
    [^***e***^](#cite_ref-rombase_list_78-4) Milena, Hübshmanová (2003).
    ["Roma – Sub Ethnic
    Groups"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/ethn/topics/names-list.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. 
79. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-79)**
    ["Culture"](http://www.middleeastgypsies.com/culture.html).
    Middleeastgypsies.com. Retrieved 2013-12-10. 
80. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-80)** [New Ethnic Identities in the
    Balkans: The Case of the
    Egyptians](http://facta.junis.ni.ac.rs/pas/pas2001/pas2001-05.pdf)
81. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Isabel_81-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Isabel_81-1)
    [^***c***^](#cite_ref-Isabel_81-2) [Isabel Mendizabal and 21 others,
    "Reconstructing the Population History of European Romani from
    Genome-wide
    Data"](http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982212012602),
    *Current Biology*, Available online 6 December 2012, accessed 12
    December 2012
82. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Comas_82-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Comas_82-1) [^***c***^](#cite_ref-Comas_82-2)
    [^***d***^](#cite_ref-Comas_82-3) [^***e***^](#cite_ref-Comas_82-4)
    "Genomic Study Traces Roma to Northern India", *New York Times*, 11
    December 2012. Findings recently reported also in *Current Biology*.
83. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-83)** Milena Hübschmannová (2002). ["Origin
    of
    Roma"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/artframe.pl?src=data/hist/origin/origin.en.xml).
    *ROMBASE*. Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz. Retrieved 3 September
    2013. 
84. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-84)** Yaron Matras (2002). [*Romani: a
    linguistic
    introduction*](http://books.google.com/books?id=D4IIi0Ha3V4C&pg=PA238&dq=number+speakers+of+Romani).
    Cambridge University Press. p. 14.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-0-521-63165-5](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63165-5 "Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63165-5").
    Retrieved 2009-07-16. "There is no known record of a migration from
    India to Europe in medieval times that can be connected indisputably
    with the ancestors of today’s Romani-speaking population." 
85. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Gresham2001_85-0)** David Gresham and
    others (December 2001). ["Origins and Divergence of the Roma
    (Gypsies)"](http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1235543/).
    *The American Journal of Human Genetics* **69** (6): 1314–1331.
    [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier "Digital object identifier"):[10.1086/324681](http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F324681).
    [PMC](/wiki/PubMed_Central "PubMed Central") [1235543](//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1235543).
    [PMID](/wiki/PubMed_Identifier "PubMed Identifier") [1235543](//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1235543). 
86. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Isabel2012_86-0)** [Isabel Mendizabal and
    21 others, "Reconstructing the Population History of European Romani
    from Genome-wide
    Data"](http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982212012602),
    *Current Biology*
87. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-87)** [Stephanie Pappas, Origin of the
    Romani
    people](http://www.livescience.com/25294-origin-romani-people.html)
88. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Jatt_mutation_88-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Jatt_mutation_88-1) [Jatt mutation found in
    Romani
    populations](http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/146142.php)
89. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-89)** Ali, Manir et al. (2009). "Null
    Mutations in LTBP2 Cause Primary Congenital Glaucoma". *The American
    Journal of Human Genetics* **84** (5): 664–671.
    [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier "Digital object identifier"):[10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.03.017](http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2009.03.017). 
90. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-radoc.net_90-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-radoc.net_90-1)
    [http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art\_b\_history\_romanireligion&lang=en&articles=true](http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_b_history_romanireligion&lang=en&articles=true)
91. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-GYPSY_i_91-0)** Digard, Jean-Pierre.
    ["GYPSY i. Gypies of
    Persia"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gypsy-i).
    *Encyclopædia Iranica*. Retrieved 2013-07-22. 
92. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-mluvnice_92-0)** Šebková, Hana; Žlnayová,
    Edita (1998). [*Nástin mluvnice slovenské romštiny (pro pedagogické
    účely)*](http://rss.archives.ceu.hu/archive/00001112/01/118.pdf).
    Ústí nad Labem: Pedagogická fakulta Univerzity J. E. Purkyně v Ústí
    nad Labem: p. 4. [ISBN
    80-7044-205-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/8070442050).
93. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-hub1995_93-0)** Hübschmannová, Milena
    (1995). "Romaňi čhib – romština: Několik základních informací o
    romském jazyku". *Bulletin Muzea romské kultury* (Brno: Muzeum
    romské kultury) (4/1995). "Zatímco romská lexika je bližší
    hindštině, marvárštině, pandžábštině atd., v gramatické sféře
    nacházíme mnoho shod s východoindickým jazykem, s bengálštinou." 
94. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-mat2002_domari_94-0)** Matras, Yaron
    (2002). *Romani: A Linguistic Introduction*, Cambridge: Cambridge
    University Press. [ISBN
    0-521-02330-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521023300)
95. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-95)** Matras, Yaron (2006).
    ["Domari"](http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/2/Matras_Domari_ELL2.pdf).
    In Keith Brown. *Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics* (Second
    ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. "The morphology of the two languages is
    similar in other respects: Both retain the old present conjugation
    in the verb (Domari kar-ami ‘I do’), and consonantal endings of the
    oblique nominal case (Domari mans-as ‘man.OBL’, mans-an ‘men.OBL’),
    and both show agglutination of secondary (Layer II) case endings
    (Domari mans-as-ka ‘for the man’). It had therefore been assumed
    that Romani and Domari derived form the same ancestor idiom, and
    split only after leaving the Indian subcontinent." 
96. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-ROMANI_ORIGINS_96-0)** ["On romani origins
    and
    identity"](http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_b_history_origins&lang=en&articles=true).
    Retrieved 2008-07-23 
97. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-97)** after [Ian
    Hancock](/wiki/Ian_Hancock "Ian Hancock"), *On Romani Origins and
    Identity*, RADOC
    (2007)[[4]](http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_b_history_origins&lang=en&articles=true)
98. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-98)**
    [http://www.livescience.com/40652-facts-about-roma-romani-gypsies.html](http://www.livescience.com/40652-facts-about-roma-romani-gypsies.html)
99. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-99)** Rai N, Chaubey G, Tamang R, Pathak
    AK, Singh VK, et al. (2012) ["The Phylogeography of Y-Chromosome
    Haplogroup H1a1a-M82 Reveals the Likely Indian Origin of the
    European Romani
    Populations"](http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0048477),
    *PLoS ONE* 7(11): e48477.
    [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier "Digital object identifier"):[10.1371/journal.pone.0048477](http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0048477)
100. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-100)** Ian Hancock. *Ame Sam e Rromane
    Džene/We are the Romani people*. p. 13.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [1-902806-19-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-902806-19-0 "Special:BookSources/1-902806-19-0"). 
101. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Luba_Kalaydjieva_101-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Luba_Kalaydjieva_101-1) Luba Kalaydjieva;
    Gresham, David; Calafell, Francesc (2001). ["Genetic studies of the
    Roma (Gypsies): A
    review"](http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2350/2/5). *BMC Medical
    Genetics* **2**: 5.
    [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier "Digital object identifier"):[10.1186/1471-2350-2-5](http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2350-2-5).
    [PMC](/wiki/PubMed_Central "PubMed Central") [31389](//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC31389).
    [PMID](/wiki/PubMed_Identifier "PubMed Identifier") [11299048](//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11299048).
    Retrieved 2008-06-16. 
102. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-102)** ["Figure
    4"](http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2350/2/5/figure/F4).
    Biomedcentral.com.
    [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier "Digital object identifier"):[10.1186/1471-2350-2-5](http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2350-2-5).
    Retrieved 2009-05-06. 
103. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-David_Gresham_103-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-David_Gresham_103-1) Gresham, D; Morar, B;
    Underhill, PA; Passarino, G; Lin, AA; Wise, C; Angelicheva, D;
    Calafell, F; Oefner, PJ; Shen, Peidong; Tournev, Ivailo; De Pablo,
    Rosario; Kuĉinskas, Vaidutis; Perez-Lezaun, Anna; Marushiakova,
    Elena; Popov, Vesselin; Kalaydjieva, Luba (2001). ["Origins and
    Divergence of the Roma
    (Gypsies)"](//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1235543).
    *American Journal of Human Genetics* **69** (6): 1314–31.
    [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier "Digital object identifier"):[10.1086/324681](http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F324681).
    [PMC](/wiki/PubMed_Central "PubMed Central") [1235543](//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1235543).
    [PMID](/wiki/PubMed_Identifier "PubMed Identifier") [11704928](//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11704928) .
104. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Bharti_Morar_104-0)** ["Mutation history
    of the Roma-Gypsies"](http://lib.bioinfo.pl/pmid:15322984).
    Retrieved 2008-06-16 .
105. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-105)** Ali, Manir et al. (2009). "Null
    Mutations in LTBP2 Cause Primary Congenital Glaucoma". *The American
    Journal of Human Genetics* **84** (5): 664–671.
    [doi](/wiki/Digital_object_identifier "Digital object identifier"):[10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.03.017](http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2009.03.017). 
106. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-106)** Michael Jan de Goeje, *Mémoire sur
    les migrations des Tsiganes à travers l’Asie*, Leyden, 1883.
107. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-107)** *Searching for the origin of
    Romanies*
    [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18768723](http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18768723)
108. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-108)** McDougall, Dan (17 Aug 2008).
    ["'Why do the Italians hate
    us?'"](http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2008/aug/17/familyandrelationships.roma).
    *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*. Retrieved
    2013-05-10. 
109. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-109)** Ian F. Hancock, Siobhan Dowd, Rajko
    Djurić (2004). *The Roads of the Roma: a PEN anthology of Gypsy
    Writers*. Hatfield, United Kingdom: University of Hertfordshire
    Press. pp. 14–15.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [0-900458-90-9](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-900458-90-9 "Special:BookSources/0-900458-90-9"). 
110. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-110)**
    ["Romani"](http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/2/Matras_Rmni_ELL.pdf)
    (PDF). *Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics*. Oxford: Elsevier.
    Retrieved 2009-08-30. 
111. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-111)** Mendizabal et. al (2012) "Our
    results further indicate that after a rapid migration with moderate
    gene flow from the Near or Middle East, the European spread of the
    Romani people was via the Balkans starting ∼0.9 kya."
112. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-112)** Anfuso, Linda (1994-02-24).
    "[[at](news:PaN9Hc2w165w) tinhat.stonemarche.org gypsies]".
    [rec.org.sca](news:rec.org.sca). [Web
    link](http://www.florilegium.org/files/CULTURES/Gypsies-msg.html).
    Retrieved 2007-08-26.
113. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-113)** *Bright Balkan morning: Romani
    lives & the power of music in Greek Macedonia,* Charles Keil et al,
    2002,
    [p.108](http://books.google.com/books?id=rPxA6JA49B4C&pg=PA108&dq=%22Feudum+Acinganorum%22&hl=en&ei=bXJWTbyIH9C74gbYgq3xBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Feudum%20Acinganorum%22&f=false)
114. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-114)** The Gypsies, Angus M. Fraser, 1995,
    [pp.50-51](http://books.google.com/books?id=qHUdwpiYCtIC&pg=PA50&dq=%22Feudum+Acinganorum%22&hl=en&ei=bXJWTbyIH9C74gbYgq3xBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Feudum%20Acinganorum%22&f=false)
115. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-kenrick_115-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-kenrick_115-1)
    [^***c***^](#cite_ref-kenrick_115-2)
    [^***d***^](#cite_ref-kenrick_115-3) Donald Kenrick, "Historical
    Dictionary of the Gypsies (Romanies)," Second Edition, Scarecrow
    Press, 2007.
116. **[Jump up
    \^](#cite_ref-Norman_Davies_1996_387.E2.80.93388_116-0)** [Norman
    Davies](/wiki/Norman_Davies "Norman Davies") (1996). *[Europe: A
    History](/wiki/Europe:_A_History "Europe: A History")*. pp. 387–388.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [0-19-820171-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820171-0 "Special:BookSources/0-19-820171-0"). 
117. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-117)** Hancock, Ian, 2001, *Ame sam e
    rromane džene* (We are the Romani People), New York: The Open
    Society Institute, p. 25
118. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-118)** [Delia Radu, "'On the Road':
    Centuries of Roma
    History"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8136812.stm), BBC World
    Service, 8 July 2009
119. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Milton_estimates_119-0)** [Romanies and
    the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and an
    Overview](http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_e_holocaust_porrajmos&lang=en&articles=true)
120. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-120)** ["United States Holocaust Memorial
    Museum"](http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005130).
    Retrieved 2012-12-02. 
121. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-hancock2005_121-0)** Hancock, Ian (2005).
    ["True Romanies and the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation and an
    overview"](http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_e_holocaust_porrajmos&lang=en&articles=).
    *The Historiography of the Holocaust*. [Palgrave
    Macmillan](/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan "Palgrave Macmillan").
    pp. 383–396.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [1-4039-9927-9](/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-9927-9 "Special:BookSources/1-4039-9927-9") 
122. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-122)** Denysenko, Marina (2007-03-12).
    ["Sterilised Roma accuse
    Czechs"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6409699.stm). BBC News. 
123. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-123)** Thomas, Jeffrey (2006-08-16).
    ["Coercive Sterilization of Romani Women Examined at Hearing: New
    report focuses on Czech Republic and
    Slovakia"](http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2006/August/200608171045451CJsamohT0.678158.html).
    *Washington File*. Bureau of International Information Programs,
    U.S. Department of State. 
124. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-124)** ["Romani Customs and Traditions:
    Death Rituals and
    Customs"](http://web.archive.org/web/20070821022337/http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/death.htm).
    Patrin Web Journal. Archived from [the
    original](http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/death.htm) on
    2007-08-21. Retrieved 2007-08-26. 
125. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-125)** David M. Knipe. ["The Journey of a
    Lifebody"](http://www.hindugateway.com/library/rituals/). Retrieved
    2008-05-26. 
126. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-126)** Hancock, Ian, 2001, Ame sam e
    rromane džene / We are the Romani People, The Open Society
    Institute, New York, page 81
127. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-127)** Saul, Nicholas; Susan Tebbut
    (2005). Nicholas Saul, Susan Tebbutt, ed. [*The role of the
    Romanies: images and counter-images of 'Gypsies'/Romanies in
    European
    cultures*](http://books.google.com/?id=AQw6qOCNj-UC&pg=PA218&dq=romanipen&cd=7#v=onepage&q=romanipen&f=false).
    Liverpool University Press. p. 218.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-0-85323-689-4](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85323-689-4 "Special:BookSources/978-0-85323-689-4").
    Retrieved March 0310. 
128. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-128)** ["Restless Beings Project: Roma
    Engage"](http://www.restlessbeings.org/projects/roma-gypsies).
    *restlessbeings*. Restless Beings. 2008–2012. Retrieved 26 December
    2012. 
129. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-129)** ["BLESSED CEFERINO GIMENEZ MALLA
    1861-1936"](http://www.savior.org/saints/malla.htm). *Saviour.org –
    Visit the Saviour*. Voveo Marketing Group. December 2012. Retrieved
    26 December 2012. 
130. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-130)** Ronald Lee (2002). ["THE ROMANI
    GODDESS KALI
    SARA"](http://kopachi.com/articles/the-romani-goddess-kali-sara-by-ronald-lee/).
    *Romano Kapachi*. Ronald Lee. Retrieved 26 December 2012. 
131. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Cac_131-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Cac_131-1) [^***c***^](#cite_ref-Cac_131-2)
    ["Roma"](http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Norway-to-Russia/Roma.html#b).
    *Countries and their Cultures*. Advameg, Inc. 2012. Retrieved 26
    December 2012. 
132. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Roma_132-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Roma_132-1) [^***c***^](#cite_ref-Roma_132-2)
    [^***d***^](#cite_ref-Roma_132-3) [^***e***^](#cite_ref-Roma_132-4)
    [^***f***^](#cite_ref-Roma_132-5) [^***g***^](#cite_ref-Roma_132-6)
    [^***h***^](#cite_ref-Roma_132-7) Elena Marushiakova; Veselin Popov
    (2012). ["Home - Culture - Roma Muslims in the
    Balkans"](http://romafacts.uni-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma-muslims-in-the-balkans).
    *Education of Roma Children in Europe*. Council of Europe. Retrieved
    26 December 2012. 
133. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-133)** [Census 2002, by
    religion](http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol1/tabele/t51a.pdf)
    at insse.ro
134. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-134)** Joshua Project. ["Romani, Vlax,
    Southern in Albania Ethnic People
    Profile"](http://www.joshuaproject.net/people-profile.php?rog3=AL&peo3=14567).
    Joshuaproject.net. Retrieved 2013-12-10. 
135. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-family_135-0)** [Rootsworld artilcle:
    *Cümbüş means fun, Birger Gesthuisen investigates the short history
    of a 20th-century folk
    instrument*.](http://www.rootsworld.com/turkey/cumbus.html)
136. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-136)** Halwachs, Dieter W. ["Speakers and
    Numbers (distribution of Romani-speaking Romani population by
    country)"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cd/data/lang/gen/data/numbers.en.pdf)
    (PDF). Rombase. 
137. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-137)** Raymond G. Gordon Jr., ed. (2005).
    ["Caló: A language of
    Spain"](http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=rmr).
    *Ethnologue: Languages of the World* (15th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL
    International.
    [ISBN](/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number "International Standard Book Number") [978-1-55671-159-6](/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55671-159-6 "Special:BookSources/978-1-55671-159-6"). 
138. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-Achim_138-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-Achim_138-1) Viorel Achim, The Roma in
    Romanian History, [Central European University
    Press](/wiki/Central_European_University_Press "Central European University Press"),
    Budapest, 2004, [ISBN
    963-9241-84-9](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9639241849)
139. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-139)** [Delia
    Grigore](/wiki/Delia_Grigore "Delia Grigore"), Petre Petcuţ and
    Mariana Sandu (2005). *Istoria şi tradiţiile minorităţii rromani*
    (in [Romanian](/wiki/Romanian_language "Romanian language")).
    Bucharest: Sigma. p. 36. 
140. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-140)** Ştefan Ştefănescu, *Istoria medie a
    României*, Vol. I, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, Bucharest,
    1991 (Romanian)
141. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-timeline_141-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-timeline_141-1) ["Timeline of Romani
    History"](http://web.archive.org/web/20071111142247/http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/timeline.htm).
    Patrin Web Journal. Archived from [the
    original](http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/timeline.htm) on
    2007-11-11. Retrieved 2007-08-26. 
142. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-142)** Most estimates for numbers of
    Romani victims of the Holocaust fall between 200,000 and 500,000,
    although figures ranging between 90,000 and 4 million have been
    proposed. Lower estimates do not include those killed in all
    Axis-controlled countries. A detailed study by Sybil Milton,
    formerly senior historian at the [U.S. Holocaust Memorial
    Museum](/wiki/U.S._Holocaust_Memorial_Museum "U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum")
    gave a figure of at least a minimum of 220,000, probably higher,
    possibly closer to 500,000 (cited in [Re. Holocaust Victim Assets
    Litigation (Swiss Banks) Special Master's Proposals, September 11,
    2000](http://www.nyed.uscourts.gov/pub/rulings/cv/1996/685455.pdf)).
    Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the
    Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas
    at Austin, argues in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000
    and 1,500,000 in his 2004 article, [Romanies and the Holocaust: A
    Reevaluation and an
    Overview](http://www.radoc.net:8088/RADOC-3-PORR.htm) as published
    in Stone, D. (ed.) (2004) The Historiography of the Holocaust.
    Palgrave, Basingstoke and New York.
143. \^ [Jump up to: ^***a***^](#cite_ref-samer_143-0)
    [^***b***^](#cite_ref-samer_143-1) Samer, Helmut (December 2001).
    ["Maria Theresia and Joseph II: Policies of Assimilation in the Age
    of Enlightened
    Absolutism"](http://romani.uni-graz.at/rombase/cgi-bin/art.cgi?src=data/hist/modern/maria.en.xml).
    *Rombase*. Karl-Franzens-Universitaet Graz. 
144. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-144)** ["Gitanos. History and Cultural
    Relations"](http://www.everyculture.com/Europe/Gitanos-History-and-Cultural-Relations.html).
    World Culture Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-08-26. 
145. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-145)** Kenrick, Donald. ["Roma in
    Norway"](http://www.reocities.com/~patrin/norway.htm). Patrin Web
    Journal. Retrieved 2012-03-13. 
146. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-146)** ["The Church of Norway and the Roma
    of
    Norway"](http://www2.wcc-coe.org/ccdocuments.nsf/index/plen-4.4-en.html).
    [World Council of
    Churches](/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches "World Council of Churches").
    2002-09-03. 
147. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-Roma-in-Europe_147-0)** ["Roma on the
    rubbish
    dump"](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/romania/10636448/Roma-on-the-rubbish-dump-British-religious-leaders-call-on-Romanian-mayor-to-reverse-forced-evictions.html).
    [CIA World Factbook](/wiki/CIA_World_Factbook "CIA World Factbook").
    Retrieved 2014-02-21. 
148. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-148)** ["Council of Europe
    website"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090221234346/http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/romatravellers/documentation/strategies/statistiques_en.asp)
    at the [Wayback Machine](/wiki/Wayback_Machine "Wayback Machine")
    (archived February 21, 2009). European Roma and Travellers Forum
    (ERTF). 2007. Archived from [the
    original](http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/romatravellers/linkmissing_en.asp#P11_143)
    on 2007-07-06.
149. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-149)** ["Demolita la "bidonville" di Ponte
    Mammolo"](http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/demolita-bidonville-ponte-mammolo.html).
    *[il Giornale](/wiki/Il_Giornale "Il Giornale")*. 2007-12-05.
    Retrieved 2013-05-10. 
150. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-150)** ["Fini: impossibile integrarsi con
    chi
    ruba"](http://www.corriere.it/politica/07_novembre_04/intervista_fini_impossibile_integrazione_rom.shtml).
    *[Corriere della
    Sera](/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera "Corriere della Sera")*. 4 Nov 2007.
    Retrieved 2013-05-10. 
151. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-151)** ["European effort spotlights plight
    of the
    Roma"](http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-02-01-roma-europe_x.htm).
    *[USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today "USA Today")*. 2005-02-01. Retrieved
    2013-05-10. 
152. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-152)** ["Europe must break cycle of
    discrimination facing
    Roma"](http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/report/europe-must-break-cycle-discrimination-facing-roma-2010-04-06).
    Amnesty International. 7 April 2010. Retrieved 15 September 2010. 
153. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-153)** ["Amnesty
    International"](http://web.amnesty.org/wire/February2002/Europe_Roma).
    Web.amnesty.org. 2009-04-20. Retrieved 2009-05-06. 
154. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-154)** Colin Woodard (2008-02-13).
    ["Hungary's anti-Roma militia
    grows"](http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0213/p07s02-woeu.html).
    *Christian Science Monitor*. Retrieved 2010-09-15. 
155. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-155)** ["roma | Human Rights Press
    Point"](http://www.humanrightspoint.si/node/12).
    Humanrightspoint.si. Retrieved 2009-05-06. 
156. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-156)** ["Roma and Ashkali in Kosovo:
    Persecuted, driven out,
    poisoned"](http://www.gfbv.de/inhaltsDok.php?id=612). Gfbv.de.
    Retrieved 2009-05-06. 
157. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-157)** ["National Roma Integration
    Strategies: a first step in the implementation of the EU
    Framework"](http://ec.europa.eu/justice/discrimination/files/com2012_226_en.pdf).
    European Commission. Retrieved 3 May 2014. 
158. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-158)** Claude Cahn (2007). ["Birth of a
    Nation: Kosovo and the Persecution of Pariah
    Minorities"](http://www.germanlawjournal.org/pdfs/Vol08No01/PDF_Vol_08_No_01_81-94_SI_Cahn.pdf).
    *[German Law
    Journal](/wiki/German_Law_Journal "German Law Journal")* **8** (1).
    [ISSN](/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number "International Standard Serial Number") [2071-8322](//www.worldcat.org/issn/2071-8322). 
159. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-159)** [Sterilised Roma accuse
    Czechs](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6409699.stm),
    [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC"), 12 March 2007 (English)
160. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-160)** [For Gypsies, Eugenics is a Modern
    Problem - Czech Practice Dates to Soviet
    Era](http://newsdesk.org/2006/06/for_gypsies_eug/),
    [Newsdesk](/wiki/Newsdesk "Newsdesk"), June 12, 2006 (English)
161. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-161)** ["Final Statement of the Public
    Defender of Rights in the Matter of Sterilisations Performed in
    Contravention of the Law and Proposed Remedial
    Measures"](http://web.archive.org/web/20071128041045/http://www.ochrance.cz/en/dokumenty/dokument.php?doc=400).
    The Office of The Public Defender of Rights. December 23, 2005.
    Archived from [the
    original](http://www.ochrance.cz/en/dokumenty/dokument.php?doc=400)
    on 2007-11-28. Retrieved 2010-09-15. 
162. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-162)** Hooper, John (November 2, 2007).
    ["Italian woman's murder prompts expulsion threat to
    Romanians"](http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/nov/02/italy.international).
    *The Guardian* (London). 
163. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-163)** de Zulueta, Tana (2009-03-30).
    ["Italy's new
    ghetto?"](http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/mar/30/roma-taly).
    *The Guardian* (London). 
164. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-164)** Bagnall, Sam (2 September 2009).
    ["How Gypsy gangs use child
    thieves"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8226580.stm). BBC News. 
165. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-MO_2012_165-0)** Hellen Kooijman (6 April
    2012). ["Bleak
    horizon"](http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/1757331-bleak-horizon).
    Presseurop. Retrieved 6 April 2012. 
166. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-166)** ["France sends Roma Gypsies back to
    Romania"](http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-1020429). BBC.
    August 20, 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-22. 
167. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-167)** ["Troops patrol French village of
    Saint-Aignan after
    riot"](http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-10681796). BBC. July
    19, 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-22. 
168. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-168)** ["Q&A: France Roma
    expulsions"](http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11027288). BBC.
    September 15, 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-16. 
169. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-169)** ["France Begins Controversial Roma
    Deportations"](http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,712701,00.html).
    *Der Spiegel*. 2010-08-19. Retrieved 2010-08-20. 
170. **[Jump up \^](#cite_ref-170)** ["EU may take legal action against
    France over Roma"](http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11301307).
    BBC News. 14 September 2010. Retrieved 15 September 2010. 

Bibliography

(An extensive historical bibliography, "Gypsies in France, 1566–2011",
is available at [[5]](http://www.fyifrance.com/gypsybib.htm).)

-   Viorel Achim (2004). "The Roma in [Romanian
    History](/wiki/History_of_Romania "History of Romania")." Budapest:
    [Central European
    University](/wiki/Central_European_University "Central European University")
    Press. [ISBN 963-9241-84-9](/wiki/Special:BookSources/9639241849).
-   Auzias, Claire. *Les funambules de l'histoire*. Baye: Éditions la
    Digitale, 2002.
-   De Soto, Hermine. *Roma and Egyptians in Albania: From Social
    Exclusion to Social Inclusion*. Washington, DC, USA: World Bank
    Publications, 2005.
-   Fonseca, Isabel. *Bury me standing: the Gypsies and their journey*.
    New York: A.A. Knopf, 1995.
-   Fraser, Angus *The Gypsies* : Blackwell Publishers, Oxford UK, 1992
    [ISBN 0-631-15967-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631159673).
-   Genner, Michael. *Spartakus*, 2 vols. Munich: Trikont, 1979-80.
-   "Germany Reaches Deal to Deport Thousands of Gypsies to Romania,"
    *Migration World Magazine*, Nov-December 1992.
-   Gray, RD; Atkinson, QD (2003). "Language-tree divergence times
    support the Anatolian theory of
    [Indo-European](/wiki/Indo-European_languages "Indo-European languages")
    origin." *[Nature](/wiki/Nature_(journal) "Nature (journal)").*
-   Gresham, D; *et al.* (2001). "Origins and divergence of the Roma
    (Gypsies)." *American Journal of Human Genetics.* **69**(6),
    1314-1331.
    [[6]](http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v69_p1314-1331.pdf)
-   Hackl, Erich. (1991). *Farewell Sidonia*, New York: Fromm
    International Pub. [ISBN
    0-88064-124-X](/wiki/Special:BookSources/088064124X). (Translated
    from the German, *Abschied von Sidonie* 1989)
-   Helsinki Watch. *Struggling for Ethnic Identity: Czechoslovakia's
    Endangered Gypsies.* New York, 1991.
-   Leland, Charles G. *The English Gipsies and Their Language*. London:
    Trübner & Co., 1873.
-   Lemon, Alaina (2000). *Between Two Fires: Gypsy Performance and
    Romani Memory from Pushkin to Post-Socialism.* Durham: [Duke
    University](/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University") Press. [ISBN
    0-8223-2456-3](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0822324563)
-   Luba Kalaydjieva; *et al.* (2001). "Patterns of inter- and
    intra-group [genetic
    diversity](/wiki/Genetic_diversity "Genetic diversity") in the Vlax
    Roma as revealed by Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA lineages."
    *European Journal of Human Genetics.* **9**, 97-104.
    [[7]](http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/EJHG_2001_v9_p97.pdf)
-   Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Vesselin. (2001) "Gypsies in the
    [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire")." Hatfield:
    University of Hertfordshire Press.
-   Matras, Yaron (2002). *Romani: A Linguistic Introduction*,
    Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [ISBN
    0-512-02330-0](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0512023300).
-   McDowell, Bart (1970). "Gypsies, Wanderers of the World". [National
    Geographic
    Society](/wiki/National_Geographic_Society "National Geographic Society").
    [ISBN 0-87044-088-8](/wiki/Special:BookSources/0870440888).
-   "Gypsies, The World's Outsiders." *National Geographic*, April 2001,
    72-101.
-   Ringold, Dena. *Roma & the Transition in Central & Eastern Europe:
    Trends & Challenges*. Washington, DC, USA: World Bank, 2000. pp. 3,
    5, & 7.
-   Roberts, Samuel. *The Gypsies: Their Origin, Continuance, and
    Destination*. London: Longman, 4th edition, 1842.
-   Silverman, Carol. "Persecution and Politicization: Roma (Gypsies) of
    Eastern Europe." *Cultural Survival Quarterly*, Summer 1995.
-   Simson, Walter. *History of the Gipsies*. London: S. Low, 1865.
-   Tebbutt, Susan (Ed., 1998) *Sinti and Roma in German-speaking
    Society and Literature*. Oxford: Berghahn.
-   Turner, Ralph L. (1926) The Position of Romani in Indo-Aryan. In:
    Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society 3rd Ser. 5/4, pp. 145–188.
-   [Danish Broadcasting
    Corporation](http://www.dr.dk/Regioner/Kbh/Nyheder/Politik/20060118073049.htm)
    A page in Danish about Romani treatment in Denmark

External links[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Romani_people&action=edit&section=40 "Edit section: External links")]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  ![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)   Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***[Roma people](//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Roma_people "commons:Category:Roma people")***.
  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

European countries Roma links

-   [http://www.sintiundroma.de/en/sinti-roma.html](http://www.sintiundroma.de/en/sinti-roma.html)
    - History the Roma and Sinti in Germany -
-   [http://romafacts.uni-graz.at/index.php/history/general-introduction/general-introduction](http://romafacts.uni-graz.at/index.php/history/general-introduction/general-introduction)
    - History of the Roma in Austria -
-   [http://www.rommuz.cz/en/history-and-language/](http://www.rommuz.cz/en/history-and-language/)
    - History of the Roma in Czech Republic
-   [http://www.romasinti.eu/\#/ZoniWeisz/Deportation](http://www.romasinti.eu/#/ZoniWeisz/Deportation)
    History of some Roma Europeans

The concentration, Labor, Ghetto camps that the Roma were persecuted in
during World War II

-   [http://en.auschwitz.org/h/index.php?option=com\_content&task=view&id=11&Itemid=3](http://en.auschwitz.org/h/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11&Itemid=3)
-   [http://www.holocaust.cz/en/history/camps/hodonin](http://www.holocaust.cz/en/history/camps/hodonin)
-   [http://www.lety-memorial.cz/history\_en.aspx](http://www.lety-memorial.cz/history_en.aspx)
-   [European Parliament resolution on the situation of the Roma in the
    European
    Union](http://www.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade3?SAME_LEVEL=1&LEVEL=5&NAV=X&DETAIL=&PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2005-0151+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN)
    - April 28, 2005
-   [Final report on the human rights situation of the Roma, Sinti and
    travellers in
    Europe](https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=962605&Site=COE) by the
    European Commissioner for [Human
    Rights](/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights") ([Council of
    Europe](/wiki/Council_of_Europe "Council of Europe")) - February 15,
    2006
-   [Shot in remote areas of the Thar desert in Northwest India,
    "Jaisalmer Ayo: Gateway of the
    Gypsies"](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zirn1H4vE0Y) on
    [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube") captures the lives of vanishing
    nomadic communities who are believed to share common ancestors with
    the Roma people - released 2004

Non-governmental organisations

-   [European Roma Rights Centre](http://www.errc.org/) - International
    Romani NGO
-   [Roma Rights Network](http://www.romarights.net/) - Romani INGO

Museums and libraries

-   [Museum of Romani
    Culture](/wiki/Museum_of_Romani_Culture "Museum of Romani Culture")
    in [Brno](/wiki/Brno "Brno"), [Czech
    Republic](/wiki/Czech_Republic "Czech Republic") (in
    Czech)[[8]](http://www.rommuz.cz/)
-   [Specialized Library with Archive "Studii
    Romani"](http://www.studiiromani.org/) in
    [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia"), [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria")
    (Bulgarian, English)
-   [Documentation and Cultural Centre of German Sinti and
    Roma](http://www.sintiundroma.de/content/index.php?sID=2&navID=0&tID=0&aID=0)
    in [Heidelberg](/wiki/Heidelberg "Heidelberg"),
    [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") (German, English)
-   [Ethnographic Museum](http://www.muzeum.tarnow.pl/index.php) in
    [Tarnów](/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w "Tarnów"),
    [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"). Click "*Romowie*" on the menu at
    left. (Polish)
-   [Who we Were, Who we Are: Kosovo Roma Oral History
    Collection](http://www.balkanproject.org/roma). The most
    comprehensive collection of information on
    [Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo "Kosovo")'s Roma in existence. (English)

[[show](#)]

-   [v](/wiki/Template:Roma_diaspora "Template:Roma diaspora")
-   [t](/wiki/Template_talk:Roma_diaspora "Template talk:Roma diaspora")
-   [e](//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Roma_diaspora&action=edit)

[Romani diaspora](/wiki/Romani_diaspora "Romani diaspora")

[Settlements](/wiki/List_of_Romani_settlements "List of Romani settlements")

Subgroups

Uncontested

-   [Boyash](/wiki/Boyash "Boyash")
-   [Kalderash](/wiki/Kalderash "Kalderash")
-   [Lovari](/wiki/Lovari "Lovari")
-   [Machvaya](/wiki/Machvaya "Machvaya")
-   [Polska Roma](/wiki/Polska_Roma "Polska Roma")
-   [Bergitka Roma](/wiki/Bergitka_Roma "Bergitka Roma")
-   [Ruska Roma](/wiki/Ruska_Roma "Ruska Roma")
-   [Servitka Roma](/wiki/Servitka_Roma "Servitka Roma")
-   [Ursari](/wiki/Ursari "Ursari")
-   [Muslim Roma](/wiki/Muslim_Roma "Muslim Roma")
-   [Ashkali](/wiki/Ashkali_and_Balkan_Egyptians "Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians")
-   [Cascarots](/wiki/Cascarots "Cascarots")
-   [Erromintxela](/wiki/Erromintxela "Erromintxela")
-   [Finnish Kale](/wiki/Finnish_Kale "Finnish Kale")
-   [Welsh Kale](/wiki/Kale_(Welsh_Romanies) "Kale (Welsh Romanies)")
-   [Romanichal](/wiki/Romanichal "Romanichal")
-   [Sinti](/wiki/Sinti "Sinti")
-   [Manouche](/wiki/Manouche "Manouche")
-   [Scandinavian Travellers (Tavinger,
    Romanisæl)](/wiki/Norwegian_and_Swedish_Travellers "Norwegian and Swedish Travellers")
-   [Kawliya](/wiki/Kawliya "Kawliya")
-   [Black Dutch](/wiki/Black-Dutch "Black-Dutch")

Contested

-   [Dom](/wiki/Dom_people "Dom people")
    -   [Nawar](/wiki/Nawar_people "Nawar people")

-   [Bosha/Lom](/wiki/Lom_people "Lom people")
-   [Lori](/wiki/Lori_people "Lori people")
-   [Lyuli](/wiki/Lyuli "Lyuli")
-   [Garachi](/wiki/Garachi "Garachi")

By country

-   [Austria](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Austria "Romani people in Austria")
-   [Bosnia and
    Herzegovina](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Romani people in Bosnia and Herzegovina")
-   [Brazil](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Brazil "Romani people in Brazil")
-   [Bulgaria](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Bulgaria "Romani people in Bulgaria")
-   [Canada](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Canada "Romani people in Canada")
-   [Croatia](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Croatia "Romani people in Croatia")
-   [Czech
    Republic](/wiki/Romani_people_in_the_Czech_Republic "Romani people in the Czech Republic")
-   [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Czechoslovakia "Romani people in Czechoslovakia")
-   [France](/wiki/Romani_people_in_France "Romani people in France")
-   [Germany](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Germany "Romani people in Germany")
-   [Greece](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Greece "Romani people in Greece")
-   [Hungary](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Hungary "Romani people in Hungary")
-   [Ireland](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Ireland "Romani people in Ireland")
-   [Kosovo](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Kosovo "Romani people in Kosovo")
-   [Macedonia](/wiki/Romani_people_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia "Romani people in the Republic of Macedonia")
-   [Portugal](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Portugal "Romani people in Portugal")
-   [Romania](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Romania "Romani people in Romania")
-   [Serbia](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Serbia "Romani people in Serbia")
-   [Slovakia](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Slovakia "Romani people in Slovakia")
-   [Spain](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Spain "Romani people in Spain")
-   [Syria](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Syria "Romani people in Syria")
-   [Turkey](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Turkey "Romani people in Turkey")
-   [Ukraine](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Ukraine "Romani people in Ukraine")
-   [United
    States](/wiki/Romani_people_in_the_United_States "Romani people in the United States")

\<img
src="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1"
alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position:
absolute;" /\>